A review on air emissions assessment: Transportation

PurposeThe purpose of this investigation is the dynamic modelling of greenhouse gas (GHG) and air pollution emissions, to identify technology and policy options for reducing GHG and air pollution, and to explain how these options might affect the different variables of mobile source emission systems in Kosovo.Design/methodology/approachFor modelling impacts of the technology and policy options for reducing GHG and air pollution, the model STELLA software has been used. The annual total emission for air pollutants (CO, NOx, CHx, SO2 and dust) and GHG (CO2) from the year 2000 up to 2025 is calculated. 2000 is taken as the base year for emission. Initial data value for vehicle population is taken from MEM and from World Bank ESTAP Project for Kosovo. Projection for the total number of vehicles in Kosovo is calculated with the WB Atlas Method, while the projection for emission factors and total annual emission for Air Pollutants and GHG (CO2) are calculated with US EPA methodology.FindingsFrom the results obtained using this model, the variables that drive GHG and air pollutant emissions and reduction in transport are identified. This model, predicts high emission of air pollutions and GHG in the short term from 2000 to 2010. After 2015, due to implementing the emission reduction policies and introducing new technologies in transportation, a continual reduction in air pollution will take place, whereas the CO2 output up to 2025 will be reduced by 25 percent in comparison with the emission values of 2007.Originality/valueModels presented here are the first, together with original data and results, with the predictions which are regional, but accepted globally. This work is original, since no such analysis has been carried out about mobile source emission systems in Kosovo. The paper provides data and results on which further research could be carried out.

The Greenhouse Gas and Air Pollution Interactions and Synergies (GAINS)-Model is studied and developed to provide a consistent framework for the analysis of co-benefits reduction strategies from air pollution and greenhouse gas sources. In this paper we introduced a BI approach, namely GAINS-BI, applied as a further development of the GAINS model. In this context, the GAINS-BI conceptual model, including GAINS-BI architecture and concepts, is specified based on a sound mathematical models used for calculate emission and costs. Hereafter, a multidimensional data model, e.g. activity, emission and cost data cubes, has been studied and introduced to represent specific multidimensional analysis requirements of greenhouse gas and air pollution application domains. To proof of concepts, some implementation results have been presented.

Humanity has consumed a large amount of energy and resources to maintain the rapid development of the economy and society, causing greenhouse gas and air pollutants to rise continuously, generating enormous pressures for the sustainable development of many cities. It is economical to control greenhouse gas and air pollutants from the synergy perspective. To identify the key driving factors involved in synergistic control, this paper uses the pressure-state-response (PSR) model to design a performance evaluation model of greenhouse gas and air pollutants synergistic control (GASC) utilizing pressure, state, and response dimensions. The performance evaluation factor system of GASC comprises three primary aspects and 18 criteria. The analytic hierarchy process (AHP) was used to determine the weight of each factor in the evaluation system. The technique for order preference by similarity to an ideal solution (TOPSIS) method was used to calculate the ranking of the synergistic control effects of the four representative provinces in China. We use Importance-performance analysis (IPA) to analyze the performance of driving factors of synergistic control in the province with the lowest ranking from 2016 to 2020. The research shows that in Northeast China, represented by Liaoning province, the government’s response should include changing the support strategy for the new energy consumer, introducing synergistic control standards and policies, and making flexible adjustments to the supply chain. The research provides a scientific basis for the performance evaluation of GASC and decision-making support for lean response strategies.

Air pollution is one of the major causes of mortality and morbidity in the world today. World Health Organization (WHO) data show that almost all of the global population (99%) breathe air that exceeds WHO guideline limits and contains high levels of pollutants, with low- and middle-income countries suffering most from air pollution exposure. In China, the largest developing country, the poor air quality is primarily attributed to the rapid economic expansion the country experienced since the reform and opening-up in 1978, resulting in a drastic increase in coal-powered industrial production and electricity demand, as well as an exponential rise in private vehicles. Although there has been continuous air quality improvement following a series of stringent control policies, air pollution remains an important public health threat in China. The Global Burden of Disease Study estimated that in 2019, air pollution was responsible for 1.85 million deaths in China[1]. Meanwhile, non-communicable diseases (NCDs), such as cardiovascular disease and cancer, have placed much more disease burden on the population than ever[2]. It has been estimated that cardiovascular disease is now the leading cause of death in the Chinese population of adults 40 years of age and older, accounting for around 40% of total mortality. A growing body of human and animal evidence has led to a concern about the potential deleterious effects of ambient air pollution on the cardiovascular system[3,4]. For example, using the largest nationwide data in 272 Chinese cities, Chen et al. reported that a 10 μg/m3 increment of PM2.5 was associated with an increase of 0.27% in cardiovascular mortality. Similarly, in 652 cities of 24 countries, Liu et al. reported that an increase of 10 μg/m3 increment of PM2.5 was associated with increases of 0.36% in daily cardiovascular mortality[5]. The mixture of air pollutants may adversely affect the cardiovascular system directly and indirectly[6]. Direct effects may occur via agents that readily cross the pulmonary epithelium into the circulation, such as ultra-fine particles (UFPs), soluble constituents of particles (e.g., sulfate and nitrate), and gaseous pollutants (e.g., nitrogen oxides). Indirect effects may occur via induction of pulmonary inflammation and oxidative stress, leading to systemic inflammation and endothelial dysfunction. Although the adverse cardiovascular effects of air pollution have been documented in China, questions remain to be solved in human-based studies, especially for a stronger causal inference[7]. In this issue, we invited esteemed colleagues from some of the most reputable institutions in China and the United States, including Yale University, the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Fudan University, and Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College to report their latest findings on air pollution and cardiovascular disorders. Their intriguing findings underscore the importance of understanding the health impacts of air pollution, particularly in China where the problem is especially severe due to rapid industrialization and urbanization. Ban et al. investigated the linear and non-linear patterns for the association between PM2.5 and acute incidence of myocardial infarction (MI) based on a multi-county registry dataset. They evaluated the reduction of premature MI incidence under different pollution control objectives in China[8]. This study provided valuable insights into the impact of PM2.5 on cardiovascular health on a national scale, and its findings can help inform policies aimed at reducing the burden of cardiovascular disease in China. Du et al. investigated the health effects of short-term exposure to PM2.5 from agricultural sources on acute MI onset using a nationwide database in China[9]. The study found that exposure to agricultural PM2.5 was associated with an increased risk of acute MI, highlighting the need for more research on estimating the adverse health effects of different air pollution sources. The study conducted by Jiang et al. explored the impacts of PM2.5 and PM2.5–10 on the onset of stable and unstable angina at an hourly temporal resolution, adjusting for key confounders[10]. They suggest that life-threatening cardiovascular disease risk from transient exposure to air pollution must be considered by healthcare professionals including cardiologists and patient caregivers to avoid negative cardiorespiratory outcomes. Finally, Zhou et al. reviewed available evidence quantifying the relationship between exposure to ambient gaseous and particulate air pollutants and cardiovascular symptoms[11]. The study found that exposure to air pollution was associated with a wide range of cardiovascular symptoms, including heart failure, arrhythmias, and hypertension. Although the findings above confirm that air pollution contributes to the cardiovascular disorders in China, several questions or challenges remain to be solved in human-based studies, especially for a stronger causal inference. Although some recent prospective cohort studies in China have examined the long-term effects of air pollution on cardiovascular mortality or morbidity[12], cohort studies are still lacking in examining a full spectrum of cardiometabolic diseases. Most Chinese studies on air pollution and cardiovascular health are observational in nature, thus limiting the power of causal inference. Accountability studies that evaluate long-term health benefits of clean air policies and intervention studies that reduce individual exposure may help to establish a causal relationship between air pollution and cardiovascular health[13]. The application of the difference-in-differences approach and randomized crossover design in intervention studies have been shown to further improve the causality[14]. Controlled-exposure human trials are particularly useful to establish the biological causation for the adverse cardiovascular effects of air pollution[15]. As research on the relationship between air pollution and cardiovascular health in the Chinese population continues to evolve, it is important to remember the many questions and challenges that remain. One area requiring further investigation is the lifetime course of cardiovascular damage effects, which could be addressed through prospective cohort studies. By following a large cohort of individuals over time, researchers can better understand how air pollution exposure affects the development and progression of cardiovascular diseases over the course of an individual's life. In addition to clarifying the long-term effects of air pollution on cardiovascular health, it is also important to examine the relevance of cumulative exposure. This requires not only tracking the levels of air pollution that individuals are exposed to over time but also considering how exposure to other risk factors, such as smoking, physical activities, green space, or a poor diet, may interact with air pollution exposure to affect cardiovascular health outcomes. By taking a more comprehensive approach to understanding the health impacts of air pollution, researchers can help to identify the most vulnerable populations and periods and develop more effective public health interventions to mitigate the negative health effects of air pollution. Another crucial area for future research is the investigation of genetic–environment interactions in relation to air pollution exposure and cardiovascular health. While genetic factors have been shown to play a role in the development of cardiovascular disease, their interaction with environmental factors such as air pollution is still poorly understood. By identifying genetic variations that may increase an individual's susceptibility to the negative health effects of air pollution, researchers can help to develop more personalized approaches to the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular diseases. Finally, it is important to establish the pathophysiologic link between air pollution and cardiometabolic diseases in the Chinese population. This requires identifying the specific mechanisms by which air pollution exposure leads to cardiovascular disease and understanding how these mechanisms may differ across different population subgroups. By gaining a more detailed understanding of the biological pathways that link air pollution exposure to cardiovascular disease, researchers can help to develop more targeted and effective interventions to mitigate the negative health effects of air pollution. Beyond these research priorities, there is clear evidence showing that climate change poses significant health risks to the population, and population health risks due to environmental factors under changing climate will become more severe in the future[16]. Air quality is closely linked to the earth's climate and ecosystems globally, as many of the air pollutants and greenhouse gases share the same sources (e.g., combustion of fossil fuels). Therefore, policies to reduce air pollution offer a win-win strategy for both climate and health, lowering the burden of disease attributable to air pollution, and contributing to the near- and long-term mitigation of climate change can be accomplished at the same time. Therefore, air pollution, climate change, and population health need to be considered simultaneously. Meanwhile, health risks from environmental factors will persist under climate change, and gaps in research evidence that may support population adaptation should be filled. In addition, innovative technologies and methodologies that may be applied to population health interventions should be developed. In summary, consideration of the health impacts and coping strategies of air pollution and climate change can help the government move forward towards sustainable development with appropriate urgency, reducing the disease burden and promoting a more healthy and sustainable future for all. CONFLICTS OF INTEREST STATEMENT Haidong Kan is an Editorial Board member of Cardiology Plus.

Based on data from the Ministry of Environment (KLH), the transportation sector is the largest source of air and greenhouse gas (GHG) pollutants in urban areas followed by other sources of fine pollutant emissions such as industry, households and commercial activities. GHG emissions from the transportation sector in the city are around 23% of total GHG emissions from all sources. The aim of this study is to reduce emissions on trucks and buses by installing the Speed Limiter and Driver Fatigue Analyzer (SLIFA). The SLIFA installed on trucks and buses that is operating in the city area. The analysis of smoke level with an exhaust emission meterfor monitoring several pollutants such as Carbon Dioxide (CO2), Carbon Monoxide (CO), Nitrogen Monoxide (NOx), and Sulphur Dioxide (SO2). The average opacity index at truck SG 500 before is 22% and it wasreduced to 16.6% after SLIFA installation. The analysis in bus OH 1526 obtained that the average opacity index before is 25.11%, and after installation, it was reducedto20.17%, analysed with Fleet Management Toolkit (FMT) Air Pollutants, Particulate Matter PM10, 3,3 ton/yr sulphur Oxides Sox 3,8 ton/yr, Nitrogen NOx Oxides ton/yr, Carbon Monoxide CO 77 ton/yr, Volatile Organic compound VOCs 11 ton/yr. The data showed that the installation of SLIFA was effective inreducing the exhaust emission of the trucks and buses and These tools can be used to reduce the risk of cancer, bronchitis and so on.

In the aftermath of the catastrophic 2019–2020 bushfires, the corona virus disease of 2019 pandemic and recent devastating floods in New South Wales and Queensland, Australians voted for climate action in the 2022 Federal election, and a new Climate Change Bill1 has already passed the House of Representatives. Climate change is recognised by scientists, public health experts, Indigenous leaders, economists and the Australian public at large as the most pressing issue at our doorstep.2-5 As we consider the veracity of net zero emission election commitments and the architecture of a post-pandemic recovery in Australia, we use science, public health expertise and a common chronic condition to explain the links between key issues and outline a road map for action in Australia. In this commentary, we highlight current evidence on the relationships between climate change, air pollution, fossil fuel use and their associated impacts on public health. We use asthma as a case study to examine the economic and human health burden arising from this climate-air pollution-fossil fuel triad. Australia's dependence on fossil fuels and gaps in energy policy are underscored as drivers of negative climate and public health outcomes. We provide a roadmap for action consisting of a mandate for: rapid de-carbonisation of Australia's energy systems; adoption of a healthcare without harm framework; and preparing public health systems to prevent and control asthma exacerbations. Climate change is the greatest threat to public health of the 21st century.6 The planet has warmed significantly over the past century by on average 0.8°C, largely as a result of increased global emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases (GHG).7 Human activity and fossil fuel-based, carbon intensive energy systems have contributed substantially to global heating. Climate change is having profound effects on weather systems, exemplified by the increased frequency and duration of extreme weather events including floods, drought and bushfires. Climate change also adversely impacts on atmospheric air quality and air pollution.1 The relationship between climate change and air quality is bi-directional: climate change can exacerbate or increase existing air pollutants (e.g., atmospheric heating increases ground level ozone); air polluting emissions influence the climate (e.g., release of carbon-based materials such as black soot have a heating effect); several sources of air pollution are sources of GHGs (e.g., methane locks heat in the atmosphere, triggering climate change). Incomplete combustion of fossil fuels is a primary source of air pollutants (e.g., particulate matter [PM]2.5) and is harmful to human health.8 Higher temperatures and carbon dioxide levels arising from climate change also increase airborne allergenic pollens contributing to allergic asthma.9 The energy sector is the largest contributor to GHG emissions in Australia.8 Australia's primary energy consumption is dominated by fossil fuels (i.e., coal 40%, oil 34% and gas 22%)10 and its electricity system is founded on centralised, carbon-intensive coal-fired generation. Australia's coal burning (and exports) contributes to climate change and air pollution and hence health impacts. Every step of coal's lifecycle produces air pollutants that affect human health. Burning coal produces fly ash and particulate matter (PM2.5), which lodge in the lungs, causing irritation and inflammation.11 Transport (energy) is the second largest source of emissions after electricity production.12 The road transport sector, including passenger and commercial vehicles, is reliant on petroleum-based fossil fuels and is a significant contributor to air pollution in cities and regions.13 For example, petrol and diesel emissions arising from road traffic are a major culprit in asthma exacerbations: Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) exposure and living in close proximity to a major road are associated with an increase in the likelihood of asthma in children and adults.14, 15 Asthma is one of the most common and costly of all chronic disease conditions affecting more than 260 million people globally, and both its prevalence and incidence is strongly associated with air quality and atmospheric pollution16 In 2021, 2.7 million people (10.7%) of the Australian population had asthma, making it a common non-communicable disease17 and accounting for 417 deaths in 2020.18 Nationally, there were over 37 000 hospitalisations with asthma as the principal diagnosis in 2016 and around 2% of all general practitioner encounters were for asthma, representing the 14th most common reason for a general practitioner consultation in that year.19, 20 As asthma is a lifelong condition, the costs associated with the condition are high, both to the individual as well as to the health service, where it accounts for $770 million in direct expenditures annually.19 Studies of coal mine fires and coal town residency illuminate the fossil fuel, air pollution and asthma relationship. The Hazelwood coal mine fire in the Latrobe Valley, Victoria in 2014 created plumes of smoke and ash with high PM2.5 for 45 days. Guo et al.21 found increased risks of all-causes, respiratory diseases, and asthma related emergency presentations and hospital admissions. Casey et al.11 found living near coal-fired power plants is linked to higher rates of respiratory disease and increased asthma exacerbations, while shutting down a coal plant or upgrading emission controls decreases inhaler use, emergency department visits and hospitalisation for asthma among local residents. Gas has also been associated with childhood asthma: one study of Australian children reported the population attributable fraction for childhood asthma associated with household gas stoves (which release PM2.5, NO2) for childhood asthma was approximately 12%, corresponding to over 2700 disability adjusted life years.15 Climate change is increasing the frequency and intensity of bushfires in Australia. Smoke from bushfires is a major risk factor for asthma exacerbations: the 2019–2020 summer bushfires have been linked to 429 premature deaths, more than 2000 hospitalisations for respiratory health issues and 1500 emergency department presentations with asthma.235 The health-related economic costs of the 2019–2020 bushfires was estimated AU$1.95 billion, with the majority due to the economic costs of premature mortality associated with the bushfires; AU$25 million of healthcare costs, $24 million for cardiovascular and respiratory hospitalisations, and AU$1 million for asthma emergency department attendances.22 Climate change effects allergic diseases.23 Thunderstorm asthma is an allergic asthma response to airborne allergenic pollens that rupture due to osmotic shock following a thunderstorm event, and thereby allowing smaller allergenic sub-pollen particles to reach the lower airways to trigger the potentially deadly allergic response24 (see Figure 1). In November 2016, the phenomenon of thunderstorm asthma caused 10 deaths in Australia and more than 3300 ED presentations.19, 24 Several studies have shown that plants growing in highly polluted air produce more allergenic pollen.25 When combined with pollen rupture, it results in a volatile mix that turns such pollens into ‘biological time bombs’. Knox et al.26 have shown that the major allergen of rye grass pollen has the capacity to directly interact with diesel exhaust carbon particles (DECP). They assert allergen-loaded DECP has the capacity to penetrate the lower airways and prompt an episode of asthma. Figure 1 describes the relationship between air pollution, climate change, fossil fuels and thunderstorm asthma as a public health issue. Healthcare—one of the world's largest industries—contributes to climate change and air pollution. The Australian healthcare system is responsible for ~7% of national GHGs.27 In the United States, one study has estimated that healthcare-related air pollution was responsible for 9% of respiratory disease burden from PM emissions.28 Similar estimates of disease impact are not available locally, but Australian healthcare is responsible for around 3% of national PM footprint.29 Paradoxically, some asthma treatments are significant contributors to GHGs. Metered-dose inhalers for asthma contribute an estimated 3.9% of the total carbon footprint of the UK National Health Service,30 due to the extremely potent GHGs used as propellants in some delivery systems. Australian estimates are not available, but the same products are widely used in this country. This scenario demonstrates perverse feedback loops—air pollution and climate change drive each other, and both drive increasing asthma incidence through various pathways, while treating asthma can itself further drive climate change through GHG emissions. This is a critical decade. Linear, single issue and reductionist approaches will not cut through the complex public health challenges arising from the climate change, air pollution and fossil fuel triad. Here we offer the new federal government and health sector a three-point roadmap for action. The roadmap highlights key public health-oriented interventions, which will prevent health-harming emissions, promote a healthy recovery from the pandemic and help Australians prepare for increasing asthma prevalence due to environmental triggers. Australia remains heavily dependent on fossil fuels and is unlikely to keep its commitments to the Paris Agreement to which it is a signatory. Since 1990, there has only been a 10% reduction in the share of electricity generation produced from non-renewable fuels (89.9% in 1990 to 80.2% in 2019) with more than half of total generation still reliant on coal.31 Stopping fossil fuel development and decarbonising energy systems are the most urgent and far reaching challenges of this decade.32 To prevent health harming air polluting emissions and to meet the goals of the Paris Agreement, Australia requires a coherent and timely policy framework that enables disinvestment in fossil fuels and a rapid transition to renewable energy. Central to this policy framework are climate change mitigation targets—an essential upstream and long-term public health strategy for managing the underlying causes of the increasing bushfire risk and thunderstorm asthma. This critical, foundational government policy framework will also support emission reduction efforts within the Australian healthcare sector.33 Action must be taken now, as limiting global heating to 1.5°C will require deep emissions reductions of at least 45% from 2010 levels by 2030.7 Australia's healthcare sector needs to reduce its total emissions to net zero. By 2030, an 80% reduction in emissions is required for healthcare to help meet the 1.5°C Paris Agreement commitments and minimise the predicted catastrophic public health consequences of climate change.33, 34 Australian hospitals and health systems must implement interventions which will decarbonize healthcare delivery to ‘first do no harm’ whilst maintaining and improving health. Healthcare systems can take cost-effective action to transition toward zero emissions energy, buildings, travel and transport, waste management as well as low emissions pharmaceuticals, sustainable food system ectera.35 There are multiple health service level examples of successful action (see Global Green and Health Hospitals36) and state and territory government policy leadership can support compliance and implementation. Substitution of high emission products with more climate friendly alternatives and incentivising the production of green medications is another key strategy. This is particularly relevant to asthma medication. Alternative delivery mechanisms to metered dose inhalers without the high global heating potential propellants, such as dry powder based inhalers, are available and suitable for the majority of patients.35 Wilkinson et al.30 study found that switching to low global warming potential asthma inhalers has co-benefits for reducing GHGs and drug costs. Many peak health and medical bodies have declared a climate emergency. We support the call by Australia's peak associations including Doctors for the Environment Australia, Australian Medical Association, Royal Australian College of Physicians and the Climate and Health Alliance for the establishment of an Australian Sustainable Healthcare Unit to lead and coordinate initiatives and collaboration nationwide.33 Australia's recent bushfire smoke-related and thunderstorm asthma epidemics were climate change and air pollution driven disasters of national and/or state level significance. Both events tested public health system preparedness and responsiveness and capacity to prevent and control environmental health hazards. We support the Royal Commission into National Natural Disaster Arrangement's recommendations, specifically those pertaining to community education, air quality and health.37 Further, we endorse Vardoulakis et al.'s38 perspective that consistency of air quality information and related public health advice across jurisdictions in Australia is essential. We support their call for an independent national expert committee on air pollution and health protection to be established to support environmental health decision making in Australia. Likewise, the impact of climate change (longer pollen seasons, more extreme weather events) on asthma prevalence and severity needs to prioritised in public health planning and surveillance efforts. Notably, the current National Asthma Strategy (2018) is mute on climate change and air pollution. Australians voted for action on climate change in the 2022 federal election. The evidence is clear, we need rapid transition from fossil fuel toward renewable-energy powered systems, including net zero healthcare systems, which will provide benefits for public health, climate and economy. Yet, it remains to be seen whether the pace of change envisaged in the Climate Change Bill 2022 is sufficiently fast, or whether new coal and gas generation and mining projects will be phased out. Continued failure to rapidly act on the climate-air pollution-fossil fuel triad in Australia is likely to result in increased asthma prevalence and severity and exert an inexorable toll on the health, social and economic wellbeing of future generations. Asthma is just the tip of the iceberg. Health and medical groups have a key role in helping chart a new course with the incoming federal government to avert the cascading impacts of this ubiquitous climate-driven public health crisis. Open access publishing facilitated by Deakin University, as part of the Wiley - Deakin University agreement via the Council of Australian University Librarians. None. The authors declare no conflicts of interest except Rebecca Patrick. Data sharing not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.

Building energy consumption is an essential source of greenhouse gas (GHG) and air pollution. Green roofs can directly absorb ambient CO2 and remove air pollutants through their vegetation layers, but a limited number of studies have examined their effects on GHG and air pollutant reduction associated with building energy savings, especially in the context of climate change. This research examined the performance of green roofs on CO2 and air pollutant reduction, including SO2, PM2.5, and NOx, through building energy demand savings in Shanghai, China. Climate change mitigation effects were assessed based on the energy consumption of five types of buildings before and after the installation of green roofs under 2020 and 2050 climate conditions, respectively. EnergyPlus software 9.5.0 was applied to simulate hourly energy consumption for different building prototypes with and without green roofs. Green roofs on all building types exhibited positive energy savings on annual, monthly, and diurnal scales, and they can save more energy for most of the building types under the projected 2050 climate condition. Moreover, most of the building energy saved by green roofs came from the Heating, Ventilation, and Cooling (HVAC) systems. In addition, this study discovered that the energy-saving benefits of green roofs vary based on the type of building they were installed on. Green roofs were found to have the largest energy saving on the shopping mall, especially on extremely hot summer days. Finally, a Geographic Information System (GIS)-based approach was developed with the ability to quantify the amount of GHG and air pollutant reduction associated with building energy savings for existing buildings in the Huangpu District of Shanghai. This approach was also utilized to present the spatial distribution of buildings with different levels of suitability to install green roofs by considering their location attributes and air pollutant reduction potential together, which is the major innovation of this research. The purpose of this study is to provide valuable guidance to policy makers regarding the performance of green roofs in building energy-saving and air quality improvement in the urban environment when facing the challenge of climate change, which is essential for urban sustainability.

There is a global belief that the electrification of our transportation systems will help make significant savings in energy use, and in greenhouse gas and air pollution emissions. Both the literature and practice are full of numerous articles and reports analyzing different aspects of benefits and costs resulting from such electrification. However, the size of the literature discussing the possible impacts of electrifying vehicles in our agricultural industry does not seem to be as abundant. This paper presents a well-to-wheel analysis that attempts to estimate greenhouse gas and air pollution impacts resulting from converting the agricultural tractors and trucks to electric. Two different models are employed in the estimations, one developed by the research team using national averages, and a second model that is developed by the California Air Resources Board (CARB). Additionally, the research team conducted field visits, recorded observations, and gathered field data for the use and performance of different diesel and electric tractors over a year at a farm in Reedley City in California. The analysis and impact estimates are developed for two geographic regions: California and the US. Results of all conducted analyses indicate significant reductions in greenhouse gas and air pollution emissions.

The electricity demand for space cooling in the non-residential building (NRB) sector of China is growing significantly and is becoming increasingly critical with rapid economic development and mounting impacts of climate change. The growing demand for space cooling will increase global warming due to emissions of hydrofluorocarbons used in cooling equipment and carbon dioxide emissions from the mostly fossil fuel-based electricity currently powering space cooling. This study uses the Greenhouse Gas and Air Pollution Interaction and Synergies (GAINS) model framework to estimate current and future emissions of hydrofluorocarbons and their abatement potentials for space cooling in the NRB sector of China and assess the co-benefits in the form of savings in electricity and associated reductions in greenhouse gas (GHG), air pollution, and short-lived climate pollutant emissions. Co-benefits of space cooling are assessed by taking into account (a) regional and urban/rural heterogeneities and climatic zones among different provinces; (b) technical/economic energy efficiency improvements of the cooling technologies; and (c) transition towards lower global warming potential (GWP) refrigerants under the Kigali Amendment. Under the business-as-usual (BAU) scenario, the total energy consumption for space cooling in the NRB sector will increase from 166 TWh in 2015 to 564 TWh in 2050, primarily due to the rapid increase in the floor space area of non-residential buildings. The total GHG mitigation potential due to the transition towards low-GWP refrigerants and technical energy efficiency improvement of cooling technologies will approximately be equal to 10% of the total carbon emissions from the building sector of China in 2050.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11027-022-10021-w.

Co-abatement of greenhouse gas and air pollutants in Shanghai, China: Spatial hotspots identification, effects assessment and policy implication

Evaluation of potential co-benefits of air pollution control and climate mitigation policies for China's electricity sector

A hybrid life cycle-based trans-boundary greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions footprint is elucidated at the city-scale and evaluated for 8 US cities. The method incorporates end-uses of energy within city boundaries, plus cross-boundary demand for airline/freight transport and embodied energy of four key urban materials [food, water, energy (fuels), and shelter (cement)], essential for life in all cities. These cross-boundary activities contributed 47% on average more than the in-boundary GHG contributions traditionally reported for cities, indicating significant truncation at city boundaries of GHG emissions associated with urban activities. Incorporating cross-boundary contributions created convergence in per capita GHG emissions from the city-scale (average 23.7 mt-CO(2)e/capita) to the national-scale (24.5 mt-CO(2)e/capita), suggesting that six key cross-boundary activities may suffice to yield a holistic GHG emission footprint for cities, with important policy ramifications. Average GHG contributions from various human activity sectors include buildings/facilities energy use (47.1%), regional surface transport (20.8%), food production (14.7%), transport fuel production (6.4%), airline transport (4.8%), long-distance freight trucking (2.8%), cement production (2.2%), and water/wastewater/waste processing (1.3%). Energy-, travel-, and key materials-consumption efficiency metrics are elucidated in these sectors; these consumption metrics are observed to be largely similar across the eight U.S. cities and consistent with national/regional averages.

The urban transport sector is one of most significant contributors to greenhouse gas (GHG) and air pollutant (AP) emissions. To achieve co-benefits of GHG and AP emission reductions, a synergistic mitigation approach targeting both climate change and air pollution has gained more attention. In this study, we evaluate mitigation synergy and policy implications for GHGs and nine APs, namely, sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NO x ), carbon monoxide (CO), particulate matters (PM10 and PM2.5), black carbon (BC), organic carbon (OC), volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and ammonia (NH3), in the transport sector of Xiamen, China, during the 2013–2060 period using the Low Emissions Analysis Platform model and quantitative analysis methods. Results show that light-duty vehicles, river boats, buses and heavy-duty trucks are significant common sources of GHG and AP emissions. Road sector abatement during 2013–2020 was most prominent, especially for CO, NO X , VOCs and GHGs. In this sector, guide green travel (GGT) and adjust energy structure (AES) are dominant measures for mitigation synergy between GHGs and APs. From 2021 to 2060, emission pathways for GHGs, SO2, CO, VOCs and NH3 under optimize transport structure (OTS), AES and GGT scenarios will decrease markedly. Their emissions will peak soon relative to those under business as usual scenario. Additionally, the potential of mitigation synergy may mainly be attributed to the road and shipping sectors under AES scenario, which is the most effective in reducing PM10, PM2.5, BC and OC emissions; the mitigation potential under the AES scenario for GHGs and other APs is nearly 1–4 times as high as that under OTS and GGT scenarios. Therefore, mitigation synergy, especially in adjusting the energy structure for the transport sector, is essential for achieving the simultaneous goals of the ‘blue sky’ and ‘carbon peaking and neutrality’.

Total Intravenous Anesthetic Versus Inhaled Anesthetic: Pick Your Poison.

Know where you stand.The odds are African Americans are twice as likely to suffer a stroke as white Americans.Beating the odds isn't about winning, it's about living.You have the power to end stroke.1-888-4-STROKE / StrokeAssociation.org