A Review of the Present Threats to Tropical Moist Deciduous Sal (Shorea Robusta) Forest Ecosystem of Central Bangladesh

The book, entitling ‘Recent Readings in Sustainable Forest Management Practices’, is a comprehensive compilation that delves into the multifaceted realm of sustainable forestry. Written by a team of seasoned experts, this book provides a nuanced exploration of contemporary issues, emerging trends, and innovative practices in forest management. As a vital resource for professionals, researchers, and policymakers, the book tackles a range of topics crucial to the sustainability and resilience of our forests. The book kicks off with an in-depth examination of technical forest management practices. Covering aspects such as silviculture, harvesting techniques, and forest regeneration, this section provides insights into the latest methodologies and technologies shaping the sustainable management of forest ecosystems. Readers gain a comprehensive understanding of how technical advancements are influencing decision-making processes for forest conservation and utilization. A critical aspect of sustainable forest management, soil health forms the cornerstone of this section. The book explores the intricate relationship between forest ecosystems and soil nutrients, offering readers valuable insights into sustainable soil management practices. Topics include nutrient cycling, soil conservation strategies, and the impact of climate change on soil health, providing a holistic view of the challenges and opportunities associated with maintaining soil fertility. Recognizing the importance of community engagement, the book dedicates a section to participatory forest management. Through case studies and theoretical frameworks, readers gain an understanding of how involving local communities in decision-making processes contributes to the sustainable use and conservation of forest resources. The section also explores the socio-economic dynamics and governance structures that underpin successful participatory initiatives. In an era marked by rapid urbanization, the book addresses the vital intersection of forests and urban environments. Urban forestry emerges as a key theme, exploring the role of trees and green spaces in urban settings. From urban planning and biodiversity conservation to the psychological and health benefits of urban forests, this section sheds light on the pivotal role that trees play in enhancing the quality of life in cities. A diverse array of forest resources beyond timber takes center stage in this section. The book explores the sustainable harvest and utilization of non-timber forest products, ranging from medicinal plants and herbs to fruits, resins, and handicrafts. By highlighting the economic and ecological significance of these products, the authors underscore the importance of incorporating them into sustainable forest management strategies. The nexus between forests and rural livelihoods is a central theme woven throughout the book. Readers gain insights into how sustainable forest management practices can contribute to poverty alleviation, community development, and the enhancement of rural livelihoods. Case studies and real-world examples illustrate the positive impact of integrating forest management with local economic activities. A chapter explores the role of forests as a repository of medicinal plants and the sustainable practices associated with their harvest. Readers gain a deeper understanding of the conservation challenges, ethical considerations, and cultural dimensions surrounding the use of medicinal plants, emphasizing the need for responsible and sustainable management. "Recent Readings in Sustainable Forest Management Practices" serves as a valuable compendium, offering a rich tapestry of insights into the diverse and interconnected facets of sustainable forest management. By addressing technical, ecological, social, and economic dimensions, the book provides a holistic perspective that is essential for navigating the complex landscape of contemporary forestry practices.

Knowledge on the structure and composition of the plant communities has enormous significance in conservation and management of forests. The present study aimed to assess the community attributes, viz., structure, composition and diversity in the moist and dry sal (Shorea robusta) forests in the West Bengal province of India and compare them with the other sal forests of India. The phytosociological data from these forests were quantitatively analysed to work out the species richness, diversity, evenness, dominance, importance value, stand density and the basal area. The analysis showed that plant richness and diversity in moist sal forests of northern West Bengal are higher than the dry sal forests of south-west Bengal; a total of 134 tree (cbh C30 cm), 113 shrub and 230 herb species were recorded in the moist sal forest compared to 35 tree, 41 shrub and 96 herb species in dry sal forest. Papilionaceae was observed to be the dominant family. Dry sal forests had higher tree dominance (0.81) and stand density (1,006 stems ha -1 ) but lower basal area (19.62 m 2 ha -1 ) while moist sal forest had lower tree dominance (0.18) and stand density (438 stems ha -1 ) but higher basal area (56.52 m 2 ha -1 ). Tree species richness and stem density across girth classes in both the types decreased from the smallest to largest trees, while the occurrence rate of species increased with increase in girth class. A t-test showed significant differences in species richness, basal area and the stand density at 95% confidence level (p = \0.05) in the two forest types. The CCA indicated very low overall match (canonical correlation value = 0.40) between the two sets of variables from moist and dry sal types. The differences in these forests could be attributed to the distinct variations in climatic conditions- mainly the rainfall, disturbance regimes and the management practices.

This research paper delves into the intricate dynamics between soil and plant characteristics and their combined influence on soil moisture content in Sal forests. Sal (Shorea robusta), a dominant tree species in various parts of Asia, plays a crucial role in forest ecosystems, particularly in terms of water cycling and soil fertility. This study utilizes a multidisciplinary approach, encompassing soil science, botany, and environmental physics, to dissect the factors influencing soil moisture retention in these forests. The methodology involves a comprehensive analysis of soil propertiesand plant traits. The paper posits that a synergistic relationship between these soil and plant characteristics significantly impacts soil moisture levels, with implications for forest health and management. Findings from this research not only contribute to a deeper understanding of Sal Forest ecosystems but also offer practical insights for sustainable forest management practices, particularly in the context of climate change and water scarcity. Through its novel integration of various scientific disciplines, the study highlights the complexity of forest ecosystems and the need for holistic management approaches that consider both soil and plant factors in maintaining ecological balance.

The regional effects of climate change on forest ecosystems in the temperate climate zone of Europe can be modelled as shifts of forest vegetation zones in the landscape, northward and to higher elevations. This study applies a biogeographical model of climate conditions in the forest vegetation zones of the Central European landscape, in order to predict the impact of future climate change on the most widespread tree species in European deciduous forests—the European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.). The biogeographical model is supported by a suite of software applications in the GIS environment. The model outputs are defined as a set of conditions - climate scenario A1B by the Special Report on Emission Scenarios (SRES) for a forecast period, for a specified geographical area and with ecological conditions appropriate for the European beech, which provide regional scenarios for predicted future climatic conditions in the context of the European beech’s environmental requirements. These predicted changes can be graphically visualized. The results of the model scenarios for regional climate change show that in the Czech Republic from 2070 onwards, optimal growing conditions for the European beech will only exist in some parts of those areas where it currently occurs naturally. Based on these results, it is highly recommended that the national strategy for sustainable forest management in the Czech Republic be partly re-evaluated. Thus, the presented biogeographical model of climate conditions in forest vegetation zones can be applied, not only to generate regional scenarios of climate change in the landscape, but also as a support tool for the development of a sustainable forest management strategy.

This study estimates the recreational value of the Sal forests (Shorea robusta) ecosystem services, focusing on Bhawal National Park in Bangladesh. We employ the Contingent Valuation Method (CVM) to estimate the willingness to pay (WTP) for a safer and improved nature-based recreational area. A sample of 418 visitors was randomly selected and surveyed during peak and off-peak tourism seasons. A probit regression model was used to estimate the inverse relationship between visit likelihood and potential entrance prices. Subsequently, the Double Bounded Dichotomous Choice (DBDC) CVM was applied to estimate the WTP. The estimated average WTP was 188.99 Bangladeshi Taka (USD 1.72), at least nine times higher than the current fees. Visitors are willing to pay approximately 91% more for entrance fees during peak seasons than off-peak seasons. As a foundational study in valuing the Sal forest, this study is crucial for informing ecotourism management policies to sustain this ecosystem's health and recreational value.

Remote sensing-based observation provides an opportunity to study the spatiotemporal variations of plant phenology across the landscapes. This study aims to examine the phenological variations of different types of sal (Shorea robusta) forests in India and also to explore the relationship between phenology metrics and climatic parameters. Sal, one of the main timber-producing species of India, can be categorized into dry, moist, and very moist sal. The phenological metrics of different types of sal forests were extracted from Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS)-derived Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI) time series data (2002-2015). During the study period, the average start of season (SOS) was found to be 16 May, 17 July, and 29 June for very moist, moist, and dry sal forests, respectively. The spatial distribution of mean SOS was mapped as well as the impact of climatic variables (temperature and rainfall) on SOS was investigated during the study period. In relation to the rainfall, values of the coefficient of determination (R2) for very moist, moist, and dry sal forests were 0.69, 0.68, and 0.76, respectively. However, with temperature, R2 values were found higher (R2 = 0.97, 0.81, and 0.97 for very moist, moist, and dry sal, respectively). The present study concluded that MODIS EVI is well capable of capturing the phenological metrics of different types of sal forests across different biogeographic provinces of India. SOS and length of season (LOS) were found to be the key phenology metrics to distinguish the different types of sal forests in India and temperature has a greater influence on SOS than rainfall in sal forests of India.

Macrofungi are high-value forest resources that have functionally significant roles in the forest ecosystem. The macrofungal community of three different vegetation compositions, i.e., Sal (Shorea robusta) Forest, Tropical Deciduous Riverine Forest, and Tropical Evergreen Forest of Teghari Community Forest were investigated. Systematic random sampling was made where 60 plots (10 x 10 m) were laid in all different forest types (20 plots in each). A total of 102 macrofungi species were reported belonging to 36 families. Polyporaceae (17 species) was the largest family followed by Tricholomataceae (13 species) and saprophytic fungi were more frequent than mycorrhizal and parasitic fungi. The tropical evergreen forest was rich in macrofungi (59 species) followed by sal forest (40 species) and tropical deciduous riverine forest (38 species). Macrofungal diversity was directly related to surrounding host species. Similarly, increased soil moisture and canopy cover intensified the abundance of saprophytic fungi. The species richness was increased with increasing organic carbon, canopy, moisture, pH, and litter cover. However, soil nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium were less significant in affecting species richness. Also, the disturbance was negatively correlated with the species richness of macrofungi. This study highlights the hidden diversity which is necessary for the conservation of macrofungi, to optimize forest ecosystem integrity and resilience against biotic and abiotic agents

Over the past few decades deforestation has become the issue of global concern for its rapid reduction of biodiversity. The tropical moist deciduous Sal forest ecosystem of central Bangladesh is currently in a critical situation. Destructive anthropogenic and natural impacts coupled with overexploitation of forest resources have caused severe damage to the forest ecosystem. Due to rubber monoculture, expanding commercial fuel wood plantations & expanding agriculture, illegal cutting, encroachment of forest areas, and illegal poaching of wildlife, the Sal forest is losing biodiversity alarmingly. The study is based on intensive literature survey and tries to explore the overall deforestation situation and conservation practices for Madhupur Sal forest that comprises about 5% of the total forests in Bangladesh. The level of destruction of the natural Sal forest has pushed the forest-dwelling indigenous Garo community into cash crop production, forcing them to move away from their traditional subsistence economy. Now we need to address a joint conservation and improved management plan of the forest resources use. Thus all kinds of military establishments, construction of roads and highways for military purposes should be avoided and a policy of planned industrialization should be adopted to mitigate the adverse effect of industrialization. Findings of the study will help to identify the causes of deforestation and conservation of Madhupur Sal forest and also in other national parks in Bangladesh which ultimately conserve the biodiversity and help to maintain natural balance.DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/jesnr.v6i2.22105 J. Environ. Sci. & Natural Resources, 6(2): 109-114 2013

BackgroundAs a structurally and functionally important component in forest ecosystems, plant debris plays a crucial role in the global carbon cycle. Although it is well known that plant debris stocks vary greatly with tree species composition, forest type, forest origin, and stand age, simultaneous investigation on the changes in woody and non-woody debris biomass and their carbon stock with forest succession has not been reported. Therefore, woody and non-woody debris and carbon stocks were investigated across a subalpine forest successional gradient in Wanglang National Nature Reserve on the eastern Qinghai-Tibet Plateau.ResultsPlant debris ranged from 25.19 to 82.89 Mg∙ha− 1 and showed a global increasing tendency across the subalpine forest successional series except for decreasing at the S4 successional stage. Accordingly, the ratios of woody to non-woody debris stocks ranged from 26.58 to 208.89, and the highest and lowest ratios of woody to non-woody debris stocks were respectively observed in mid-successional coniferous forest and shrub forest, implying that woody debris dominates the plant debris. In particular, the ratios of coarse to fine woody debris stocks varied greatly with the successional stage, and the highest and lowest ratios were found in later and earlier successional subalpine forests, respectively. Furthermore, the woody debris stock varied greatly with diameter size, and larger diameter woody debris dominated the plant debris. Correspondingly, the carbon stock of plant debris ranged from 10.30 to 38.87 Mg∙ha− 1 across the successional series, and the highest and lowest values were observed in the mid-coniferous stage and shrub forest stage, respectively. Most importantly, the carbon stored in coarse woody debris in later successional forests was four times higher than in earlier successional forests.ConclusionsThe stock and role of woody debris, particularly coarse woody debris, varied greatly with the forest successional stage and dominated the carbon cycle in the subalpine forest ecosystem. Thus, preserving coarse woody debris is a critical strategy for sustainable forest management.

Evaluating sustainable forest management strategies with the Analytic Network Process in a Pressure-State-Response framework

Hydrological fluxes from Sal (Shorea robusta) forests under various disturbance gradients of Himalayan foothills

Land criticism in forest areas is a significant issue faced by many countries. This study analyzes the development of Lar land rights as a strategy for sustainable forest management in Sumbawa. Through empirical methods, the study shows that the integration of Lar with communal grazing and livestock can increase economic, ecological, and social growth. From a regulatory perspective, the implementation of Lar is supported by regional regulations and decisions of the Regent and Minister regarding forest areas. The study results indicate that the Lar scheme effectively deals with critical land while supporting sustainable forest management. As a next step, it is recommended that a more in-depth study be conducted on the long-term effectiveness of the Lar scheme, including its impacts on ecosystem sustainability and the active involvement of local communities in forest management

The study was conducted to find the net carbon stock in the Sal (Shorea robusta) forest in Bagdaila Chisapani community forest of Dang district, Nepal. The inventory was done by a stratified sampling technique with 0.5% sampling intensity taking into account the woody plants with ≥ 5cm DBH. A total of 49 sample plots of radius 8.94m and 5.64 were established to measure tree biomass and sapling biomass respectively in the forest. The mean above-ground carbon (AGC) was 160.4 t ha-1 and the mean below-ground carbon (BGC) was 24.1t ha-1. The mean total carbon stock in the study area was estimated to be 99.02 t ha-1; of which maximum carbon stock of 143.51 t ha-1 was found in block number 5. Sal was the major tree species in the CF. The biomass and carbon content in this forest is found quite low as compared to other studies in the Sal forest and other tropical forests which were due to the presence of tree stands of less diameter and height. This study would be helpful in the long-term management of forests, planning, and research purposes. The data from this study could also be taken as a reference document for the participation of community forests in carbon accounting under the REDD+ scheme in Nepal.

Sal (Shorea robusta Gaertn.f.) is the most abundant tree species, spreading across 10 Mha, covering 10.62% share in India. The local population has been profoundly dependent on sal forests for their livelihood. Besides acting as a wild animal’s habitat and controlling soil erosion, sal forests have the largest share in carbon sequestration in India, Nepal, and Bangladesh, ranging from 30 to 170 Mg Carbon/ha. Due to excessive population pressure, dense sal forests are being converted into thin and dispersed forest; hence, it is essential to critically review the lapses in the existing system and take bold steps to address them. Government-community collaborative efforts for conservation, rejuvenation, mass-scale afforestation, and establishing non-timber sal-based cottage industries can help maintain a healthy forest cover and sustainably support livelihood.

Macrofungi constitute a group of the high-value forest resources worldwide. In this paper, we report species richness and composition of the macrofungi in sal (Shorea robusta) forests of mid-hill central Nepal, which were managed for 4–29 years by the local communities. The sal forests were rich in macrofungi (115 species) with Polyporaceae being the largest family followed by Clavariaceae. Saprotrophic fungi were more common than mycorrhizal species. The proportion of mycorrhiza was <40% of the total macrofungi species which might have indicated the deteriorated condition of the forests before the initiation of conservation management. However, the proportion of mycorrhizal species was slightly higher in the forests managed for >10 years than in the forests managed for short period. The species richness increased with increasing canopy and litter cover. Since silvicultural activities and resource utilization often have negative impacts to macrofungal diversity, these activities need to be optimized to keep balance between forest management and biodiversity conservation.