A Review of Supercritical Fluid Extraction Technology and Application

Supercritical Carbon Dioxide as Green Product for Effective Environmental Remediation

This work describes the conceptual development of a new process for palm oil refining using supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) technology. The first step was to model the phase equilibrium behavior of a crude palm oil (CPO)−supercritical CO2 mixture. Next, a new flowsheet structure was synthesized to recover high-purity palm oil and its minor components. The new SFE process was finally simulated using Aspen Plus commercial process simulator version 10.2.1 based on the Redlich−Kwong−Aspen (RKA) thermodynamic model. The results obtained were in good agreement with the pilot plant data reported in the literature. It is envisioned that the development of a new, intensified palm oil refining process that is based on SFE technology can make the refining process drastically simpler and overcome the limitations of the existing technology for palm oil refining.

While the research and industrial communities are wholehartedly embracing the use of supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) technology, little has been written about it in undergraduate texts or in educational journals such as the Journal of Chemical Education . The supercritical phenomenon of fluids was first discovered in the early 1800's by the Frenchman Baron Charles Cagniard de la Tour, but the significance and practical application of his discovery have only recently been recognized and achieved. This article presents a general overview of the principles of SFE and describes the instrumentation necessary to carry out an extraction using a supercirtical fluid. The reader will also gain insight into the types of research currently being conducted using supercritical fluids as either processing solvents or as reaction constituents and matrices. Because carbon dioxide is the supercritical fluid of choice for many procedures, its use and modification for specific solutes is covered in some detail.

10 - Supercritical fluid extraction and other technologies for extraction of high-value food processing co-products

Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) is a green technology that has been applied on a commercial scale for more than three decades. SFE is a high-pressure extraction method in which a mixture of solutes is separated from a solid matrix by bringing the mixture into contact with a fluid in the supercritical state. A supercritical fluid has very particular and unique characteristics, which enable its use as an efficient extraction solvent. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the most commonly used supercritical fluid and has applications in food, cosmetic, pharmaceutical, and correlated industries. Many research works have already demonstrated that SFE is a technically feasible process that may also be commercially competitive in terms of economic viability. Although SFE is commercially carried out in several countries, it is nonetheless still considered as an emerging technology. This emerging status remains associated with SFE technology because the conventional low-pressure extraction methods remain the most frequently used extraction techniques, in particular due to the comparatively low cost of investment that is required for installing a low-pressure industrial plant. The physical phenomena that occur during SFE have already been extensively investigated, and there is consensus that SFE is a complex phenomenon that involves multicomponent systems. However, various simplifications can be performed to describe SFE for the purpose of process design. Presently, one of the major challenges for researchers in this area is the proposition of practical procedures (experimental and/or calculation methods) in order to simplify the determination of some process parameters which are required for the studies of economic feasibility. This chapter presents the fundamental concepts of SFE and gives special attention to the information that must be available to conduct preliminary studies of process design and cost estimation.

Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) with CO2 is a valuable alternative technique in which organic solvents are used in a series of laboratories and different industrial processes. In early research, water was used as the common solvent for the extraction process, but recently CO2 has received much attention as a supercritical fluid at different industrial levels. The industry zones, especially the rubber industries, prefer to use SFE with CO2 because this combination offers many advantages such as sample recovery, maintenance of purity factor, high selectivity in products, and a very short processing time, around 10–60 min. SFE with CO2 is very effective for reducing product contamination and improving environmental safety. CO2 as a solvent when used widely in various industrial processes and with SFE does not produce any emissions harmful to the environment. SFE technologies are used in different industrial applications that have shown substantial development in recent years. In this chapter, the role of SFE in rubber industries, and the importance of the rubber industry in Malaysia, with potential SFE applications, are summarized as possible future directions in research, especially for new investigators working in this area.

Developing low-fat cheese with flavor to match that of full-fat cheese has been a chal- lenge in the dairy industry. The objective of this investigation was to develop lower fat Cheddar and Parmesan grated cheese using supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) and characterize its flavor profile comparative to a full-fat product. Specifically, enabling flavor compound partition between the matrices of cheese and extracted lipids. Carbon dioxide (CO2) was the supercritical fluid for fat extraction. Extraction took place in a 500 mL SFE vessel using 100 g of grated cheese. Frac- tional factorial design was utilized to investigate two levels of treatment for each pressure (200 and 350 bar), temperature (35 and 40 ◦ C) and CO2 level (500 and 1000 g) for each extraction trial. The most efficient parameters for lipid removal resulted in 51.00% fat reduction (wet basis) for Cheddar extracted at 200 bar, 40 ◦ C, 1000 g CO2, and 55.56% fat reduction for Parmesan extracted at 350 bar, 35 ◦ C, 1000 g CO2. Thin layer chromatography (TLC) was utilized to assess the lipid composition of each cheese and the lipids extracted by SFE. TLC analysis for Cheddar and Parmesan cheeses showed only nonpolar lipids (triaclyglycerides and free fatty acids) in the recovered lipids extracted by SFE; indicating that polar lipids such as phospholipids are being retained in the cheese matrix. Gas chromatography/mass spectroscopy techniques were used to characterize volatile flavor com- pounds for each cheese sample. SFE treatment of the cheeses altered the ability to detect flavor compounds and allowed partitioning of those compounds, which varied with the type of cheese. This study suggests that SFE technology can be used in the dairy industry to develop cheese prod- ucts lower in fat, which retain flavor compounds that may not be typically fully developed with alternative methods of low-fat cheese processing. supercritical fluid extraction / carbon dioxide / Parmesan cheese / Cheddar cheese / fat

Supercritical fluid extraction of hazardous metals from CCA wood

In the present study, supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) technology was applied to extract deoxynojirimycin (1-DNJ) from mulberry leaf powder using carbon dioxide (CO2) as major extraction solvent with ethanol as cosolvent, and extraction parameters such as pressure (100, 150 and 200 bar), temperature (40, 50 and 60 °C) anddynamic extraction time (40, 60 and 80 min) were systematically investigated by full factorial design to obtain the optimum extraction efficiency and extraction yield. Under optimized conditions (pressure of 200 bar, temperature of 50 °C and dynamic extraction time of 80 min), DNJ enriched extract was obtained with high extraction efficiency (96.46 %) and extraction yield (13.41 %), enabling this product to use for nutraceutical purpose. The results indicated that SC-CO2 extraction is a promising and alternative process for recovering the bioactive compounds from mulberry leaves.

The objective of this study was to determine the best operational conditions for obtaining red propolis extract with high antioxidant potential through supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) technology, using carbon dioxide (CO2) as the supercritical fluid and ethanol as the cosolvent. The following parameters were studied: overall extraction curve, S/F (mass of CO2/mass of sample), cosolvent percentage (0, 1, 2 and 4%) and global yield isotherms as a function of different pressures (250, 350 and 450 bar) and temperatures (31.7, 40 and 50 °C). Within the investigated parameters, the best conditions found were an S/F of 131 and the use of ethanol at the highest concentration (4% w/w), which resulted in higher extract yields and higher content of antioxidant compounds. Formononetin, the main biomarker of red propolis, was the compound found at the highest amounts in the extracts. As expected, the temperature and pressure conditions also influenced the process yield, with 350 bar and 40 °C being the best conditions for obtaining bioactive compounds from a sample of red propolis. The novel results for red propolis found in this study show that it is possible to obtain extracts with high antioxidant potential using a clean technology under the defined conditions.

Dry ice-originated supercritical and liquid carbon dioxide extraction of organic pollutants from environmental samples

Research and Development of QingNao Capsules of TCM Using the SFE Technique

The global trade of tropical fruits is expected to increase significantly in the coming years. In 2018, the production was approximately 100 million tones, an increase of 3.3% compared to the previous year. Nevertheless, according to the Food and Agricultural Organization, every year one-third of the food produced in the world for human consumption is lost or wasted. More specifically, around 45% of the fruits, constituted mainly by peels, seeds, and pulps after juice extraction, are discarded mainly in the agricultural and processing steps. Therefore, decreasing and/or using these byproducts, which are often rich in bioactive components, have become an important focus for both the scientific community and the fruit processing industry. In this line, supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) technology is expected to play a significant role in the valorization of these byproducts. This review presents the concepts of a tropical fruit biorefinery using supercritical CO2 extraction and the potential applications of the isolated fractions. There is a specific focus on the extraction of bioactive compounds, that is, carotenoids and phenolics, but also oils and other valuable molecules. Moreover, the techno-economic and environmental performance is assessed. Overall, the biorefinery of tropical fruits via SFE provides new opportunities for development of food and pharmaceutical products with improved economic and environmental performance.

Hericium erinaceus (HE), a widely utilized natural remedy and dietary source, has garnered significant attention for its therapeutic potential in various diseases. In this study, we employed supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) technology to isolate the bioactive compounds from HE’s fruiting body. Comprehensive assessments of the antioxidant and antibacterial activities were conducted, along with in vitro investigations on the human colon cancer cell line (HCT-8). The SFE rate served as the evaluation metric, while the variables of extraction time, pressure, and temperature were systematically examined. By integrating the response surface center composite design, we successfully optimized the extraction process, yielding optimal parameters of 80 min, 30 MPa, and 35 °C, thus resulting in an extraction rate of 2.51%. These optimized conditions exhibited considerable antioxidant capacity, anticancer activity, and antibacterial potential. Furthermore, we employed graded alcohol extraction to refine the crude extracts, thereby confirming superior anticancer effects under a 70% alcohol precipitation. To elucidate the composition, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) were employed to analyze the crude extracts and isolates of HE, facilitating a comparative analysis of six HE varieties. Our findings suggest that sterol derivatives hold promise as the active component against the colon cancer HCT-8 cell line. In conclusion, this study underscores the potential of HE SFE in the development of functional foods or alternative drugs for colon cancer treatment, thus opening new avenues for therapeutic interventions.

Technoeconomic analysis of supercritical fluid extraction process for recycling rare earth elements from neodymium iron boron magnets and fluorescent lamp phosphors