A review of development in and challenges of thermal processing over the past 200 years — A tribute to Nicolas Appert

The purpose of this paper is to explore the hypothesis that a common basis for rapid growth in agricultural output and productivity lies in a remarkable adaptation of agricultural technology to the sharply contrasting factor proportions in the two countries. It is hypothesized that an important aspect of this adaptation was the ability to generate a continuous sequence of induced innovations in agricultural technology biased towards saving the limiting factors. In Japan these innovations were primarily biological and chemical. In the United States they were primarily mechanical.

The purpose of this study is to describe the social conditions that occurred in England after the Napoleonic war. This type of method is library research. Data collection was carried out through observation and documentation. Data were analyzed using a sociological approach. The results showed that the condition of British society after the Napoleonic war was still good in its education system with modern and intellectual thinking. British society realizes that education is very important for everyone to be more responsible. In fact, social relations that were conducive to change become individuals during war. The Napoleonic war had a negative impact on the life of British society, especially on psychological conditions and economic development. In conclusion, Britain's socio-economic life was destroyed after the war. All economic sources such as industry, agriculture and factories are getting worse. People only think how to protect themselves from war.
 Keywords: Great Britain, Impact, Napoleonic War, Sociological Approach, Vanity Fair

Japan is a relative late-comer to modern economic development, and still remains the only industrialized country in Asia. These features have undoubtedly left their mark on Japanese economic growth. Recently, efforts have been made to give a clearer quantitative picture of this growth, and even though certain vague points still remain, we believe that it is now possible to provide a more thorough sectoral analysis.

Having emerged only recently due to fast urbanisation and globalisation, pendulum migrant labourers in Vietnam are economically, culturally and socially difficult to locate – though they are estimated to number in their millions. Defined by their frequent migration between village and city, pendulum migrant labourers occupy an extended period of liminality. Are they traditional villagers or liberal city people when it comes to sex? Does city life radically change their views on sexuality? Starting with the premise that living environments play a key role in structuring the practical and symbolic realities of sex, this paper explores how extended periods of circular migration between the village and city – living environments that differ markedly in terms of socioeconomic and cultural conditions – affect the sexual views and perspectives of Vietnamese pendulum migrant labourers. Analysis from in-depth interviews with 23 married pendulum migrant labourers revealed that even though they had been living the pendulum life for several years, they continued to identify themselves, sexually, as traditional villagers. Among labourers the link between sexuality and living environment was a matter of pragmatism – matching ‘suitable’ sexual behaviour to social, even if imagined, location – and of privilege or ‘leagues’ – matching behaviour and comportment to social pedigree.

SUMMARY: The effect of pH over the range 5–9 on the growth of Bacterium coli with a constant food supply was studied at 20 and 30°. Total and viable counts were made and growth curves constructed. To discover the effects of starvation, sampling was continued after stopping the food supply. The total count always substantially exceeded the viable. Each growth curve showed an ‘initial phase’ of varying daily increment in cell numbers merging into a ‘steady phase’ of roughly constant increment, which continued as long as food was supplied. Low pH slightly shortened the initial phase, low temperature greatly prolonged it. In the early initial phase development was slow at pH 5, but later became exceedingly rapid. Altogether, the conversion of the food supplied into (total) bacterial cells was best effected in conditions of low temperature and low pH, low temperature being the more important. These conditions also favoured high viable counts, and consequently smaller non-viability indices. During starvation the apparent total counts declined, except at 30° and pH 5, when a steady increase occurred. Higher pH and lower temperature led to faster rates of decline. Viable counts remained approximately constant at pH 5, but otherwise the numbers declined.

The French Revolution dramatically changed the context for naval leadership. With the overthrow of an aristocratic officer corps and the hostility of other European monarchies France faced in early 1793 a coalition of the forces of Austria, Prussia, Spain, Great Britain and the United Provinces. Yet the revolutionary Government then the rise of Bonaparte was to see France re-emerge as an energised military force with major changes in the strategy and the conduct of land warfare. The Napoleonic shift to a decisive battle strategy (as opposed to the practice of wearing down of an opponent) was taken further by Carl von Clausewitz later who insisted on the value of the higher direction of armies as a key component in military organisation. Yet, during the Napoleonic Wars the French Imperial Navy was unable to match the drive and success of mass mobilisation represented by the nation’s Army or build on such forces as it’s ideology of free citizenship. In some respects therefore the British Navy with its emphasis on the annihilation of the enemy paralleled the new dominant tactics on land whereas French and Spanish navies for a variety of reasons were more reluctant to ‘break the line’ and were more committed to perpetuating strategies of ‘exhaustion.

Fire is an important disturbance in grassland ecosystems. Anthropogenic factors, especially land use, have drastically altered fire regimes in many regions, but how changing land-use intensity affects fire patterns remains weakly understood. Here, we reconstruct changes in fire regimes between 1989 and 2016 for the understudied Eurasian steppes, where major land-use changes happened after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. We mapped burned areas in a 540,000 km2 study region in northern Kazakhstan for 3-year periods centered on 1990, 2000, and 2015, based on all available Landsat imagery. We then used these maps to assess changes in the extent, number, and size of fires over time, and to explore links between changes in fire regimes and agriculture. We found a sevenfold increase in total burned area and an eightfold increase in fire numbers between 1990 and 2000. After 2000, burned area and fire numbers declined slightly, while fire size remained stable. Most of the observed increase in fires in the 1990s occurred on cropland, most likely due to the agricultural burning. The abandonment of cropland and pastures was also associated with intensified fire regimes, likely due to increased aboveground biomass and thus higher fuel loads. Overall, our results suggest that intensifying fire regimes on the Eurasian steppe are clearly linked to post-Soviet changes in agriculture. Given that fires on Eurasia’s steppes have wide-ranging consequences, affecting regions as far away as the Arctic, better regulation of agricultural practices, better fire monitoring, and more proactive fire management are needed.

Few events in the history of humanity rival the Industrial Revolution. Following its onset in eighteenth-century Britain, sweeping changes in agriculture, manufacturing, transportation, and technology began to gain unstoppable momentum throughout Europe, North America, and eventually much of the world—with profound effects on socioeconomic and cultural conditions. In The Institutional Revolution, Douglas W. Allen offers a thought-provoking account of another, quieter revolution that took place at the end of the eighteenth century and allowed for the full exploitation of the many new technological innovations. Fundamental to this shift were dramatic changes in institutions, or the rules that govern society, which reflected significant improvements in the ability to measure performance—whether of government officials, laborers, or naval officers—thereby reducing the role of nature and the hazards of variance in daily affairs. Along the way, Allen provides readers with a fascinating explanation of the critical roles played by seemingly bizarre institutions, from dueling to the purchase of one’s rank in the British Army. Engagingly written, The Institutional Revolution traces the dramatic shift from premodern institutions based on patronage, purchase, and personal ties toward modern institutions based on standardization, merit, and wage labor—a shift which was crucial to the explosive economic growth of the Industrial Revolution.

Few events in the history of humanity rival the Industrial Revolution. Following its onset in eighteenth-century Britain, sweeping changes in agriculture, manufacturing, transportation, and technology began to gain unstoppable momentum throughout Europe, North America, and eventually much of the world, with profound effects on socioeconomic and cultural conditions. In The Institutional Revolution, Douglas W. Allen offers a carefully researched and thought-provoking account of how dramatic changes in institutions - the formal and informal rules that govern a society-resulted from the unprecedented economic development that took place during the Industrial Revolution. Fundamental to these changes were the many significant improvements in the ability to measure performance - whether of government officials, laborers, or naval officers - thereby reducing the amount of variance in daily affairs. Offering fascinating insight into how institutions address the cost of monitoring others, Allen provides readers along the way with an understanding of the critical roles of seemingly bizarre institutions, from dueling to the purchase of one's rank in the British Army. Engagingly written, The Institutional Revolution traces the dramatic shift from premodern institutions based on patronage, purchase, and personal ties toward modern institutions based on standardization, merit, and wage labor.

Goldizen et al. (1988) reported that wild saddle-back tamarins (Saguinus fuscicollis, Callitrichidae) show birth seasonality that is correlated with food supply and body weight. They suggested a sequence of ultimate causality in which shortage of food leads to reduced body weight which leads to timing of weaning and lactation when resources are more abundant. Cotton-top tamarins in captivity show birth seasonality despite constant food supply and body weight. Although natural availability of fruit and insects (which are key foods for tamarins) is related to rainfall, birth seasonality and body weight in captive cotton-top tamarins are unrelated to rainfall. The most likely proximate mechanism for seasonality of births in tamarins is photo-period, given existing data on populations living in natural and artificial lighting.

Contents: Introduction: The British response to the threat of invasion, 1797-1815, Mark Philp A tale of two conflicts: critiques of the British war effort, 1793-1815, Philip Harling The sea fencibles, loyalism, and the reach of the state, Nicholas Rogers The defence of Manchester and Liverpool in 1803: conflicts of loyalism, patriotism and the middle classes, Katrina Navickas 'An insurrection of loyalty': the London volunteer regiments' response to the invasion threat, Jon Newman In defence of Great Britain: Henry Addington, the Duke of York and military preparations against invasion by Napoleonic France, 1803-04, Charles John Fedorak 'This soldierlike danger': the trial of William Blake for sedition, Jon Mee and Mark Crosby John Bull in a dream: fear and fantasy in the visual satires of 1803, Alexandra Franklin Britain and the black legend: the genesis of the anti-Napoleonic myth, Simon Burrows 'The cheap defence of nations': monuments and propaganda, Holger Hoock Music and politics, 1793-1815: section 1: introduction, Mark Philp Section 2: the Volunteer Band, Newcastle Upon Tyne, Roz Southey Section 3: 'you heroes of the day': ephemeral verse responses to the Peace of Amiens and the Napoleonic Wars, 1802-04, Caroline Jackson-Houlston Section 4: 'thus we kept away Bonaparte': music in Oxford at the time of the Napoleonic Wars, Susan Wollenberg Anti-English discourse among the authorities: myths and realities in the northern departements, Annie Crepin and Vincent Cuvilliers 'An inundation from our shores': travelling across the Channel around the Peace of Amiens, Renaud Morieux Index.

present era of staggering scientific and technological innovations, with major changes in agriculture, manufacturing, commerce, and communications, seems to document unparalleled human achievement. Yet when we examine the long-term implications, it becomes clear that an ever-growing number of humans have threatened the delicate environmental balance that sustains life on this planet. past century may be remembered not as a period of great progress but as one marked by unrestrained consumption and failure to come close to a sustainable use of the earth's limited natural resources. In The State of the Earth, noted historian Paul K. Conkin provides a comprehensive analysis of the many environmental hazards that humans must face in this still-young century. Our activities have threatened the survival of many plants and animals, created scarcities in cultivatable soils and water needed for irrigation, used up a large share of fossil fuels, polluted air and water, and most likely created the conditions that will lead to major climate changes. Conkin not only evaluates the challenges but recognizes the successes of concerned individuals and organizations in creating awareness and in supporting policies that will best preserve a healthy earth. The State of the Earth is an invaluable resource for those who desire a broad yet thorough and scientifically informed introduction to present environmental challenges. Even when humans possess the knowledge and the tools to cope with mounting environmental problems, they may not be willing to make the needed sacrifices. Conkin demonstrates that the issues are as much moral and political as technological.

Although in 1776—83 Britain failed to suppress its American colonists, the necessity to maintain an army across the Atlantic developed both the infrastructure and the experience needed to manage an empire. For it began a rationalization in the management of the supply of military food and transport that was completed in 1793—94 when the naval Victualling and Transport Boards undertook those responsibilities, and it built upon knowledge acquired in the supply of the Falklands garrison (1767—72) to permit the shipment after the war of colonists and supplies to Australia, Nova Scotia, and Sierra Leone. This infrastructure and experience provided the foundation for the great expeditions of the French Revolutionary War and the development of a global network of colonial garrisons during the Napoleonic War.

The combination of short days and long cold winter nights, in temperate regions, presents a major challenge for small diurnal birds. Small birds regularly employ heterothermy and enter rest-phase hypothermia during winter nights to conserve energy. However, we know little about how environmental conditions, such as food availability, shape these strategies. We experimentally manipulated food availability in winter to free-living great tits Parus major. A 'predictable' and constant food supply was provided to birds in one area of a forest, while birds in another area did not have access to a reliable supplementary food source. We found that predictability of food affected the extent of nocturnal hypothermia, but the response differed between the sexes. Whereas male nocturnal body temperature was similar regardless of food availability, females exposed to a naturally 'unpredictable' food supply entered deeper hypothermia at night, compared with females that had access to predictable food and compared with males in both treatment groups. We suggest that this response is likely a consequence of dominance, and subdominant females subject to unpredictable food resources cannot maintain sufficient energy intake, resulting in a higher demand for energy conservation at night.

Rams of a 'Mediterranean breed' (Merino) and a 'temperate breed' (Suffolk) were compared to determine how much of the differences between their reproductive seasons is owing to variation in their responses to photoperiodic and nutritional cues. In a previous study, both nutritional and photoperiodic inputs were held constant, and it was found that the two breeds show similar endogenous rhythms and, when the animals are challenged with a Mediterranean photoperiodic cycle, these endogenous rhythms are similarly modified. The present study tested whether an annual cycle in the supply of forage might modify the patterns that are generated by the interaction between photoperiod and endogenous rhythms. Both breeds were subjected to a simulated 'Mediterranean' annual cycle in photoperiod (10L:14D to 14D:10L) and provided with either constant food supply or a simulated 'Mediterranean' annual cycle in food supply. In Merino rams, testicular growth responded to photoperiod, but nutrition dominated those responses. In Suffolk rams, changes in testicular size can be completely out of phase with changes in body mass because they are driven primarily by photoperiod, with only subtle responses to changes in diet. The cycle of testicular growth in the Suffolk was driven by changes in the secretion of gonadotrophins (follicle-stimulating hormone concentrations and luteinizing hormone pulse frequency). By contrast, in the Merino, the nutritionally driven seasonal cycle of testicular growth was associated primarily with changes in body mass and this relationship could not always be explained by changes in gonadotrophin secretion. Melatonin secretion was not affected by food supply. Thus, the 'Mediterranean' and 'temperate' genotypes have similar endogenous rhythms that are similarly modified by photoperiod but, with respect to seasonal changes in nutrition, they differ in both the nature of their reproductive response and the physiological mechanisms that mediate those responses.