A Reassessment of an Anta-Architrave Practice in the Ionic Rock-cut Tombs of the Lykio-Karian Borderland

Rock-cut chamber tombs are characteristic monuments of the Bronze and Iron Ages in southern Sicily. They are found in large numbers and prominent locations at several Late Bronze Age sites, most of which were first investigated over a century ago by Paolo Orsi, but received little attention subsequently. One famous example is the UNESCO World Heritage site of Pantalica, where the author recently conducted fieldwork aimed at clarifying the form, distribution and topographical relationships of the tombs, which date from about 1250–650 b.c. Although these monuments present various practical problems for research, and their contents were removed long ago, the author argues that they can be profitably studied from an architectural, contextual, and landscape perspective. A new sample of the Pantalica tombs is presented, showing a wide range of forms and associations that provides a basis for the discussion of several issues: links with domestic architecture, demography, accessibility, visibility, temporality, and perception.

The 41 rock-cut tombs at Etenna provide a clear impression of this very early and widespread tradition for the region. They allow us to compare the Lycian, Pamphylian, Cilician and Pisidian rock-cut tomb architecture and understand connections and discontinuities between them. They also illustrate how features of such tombs are based on natural and technical factors, on local architectural traditions, or on the rock-cut architecture of neighbouring cultures. But basic similarities, such as the cutting of a tomb chamber in the rock, could occur without any influence from other cultural regions, for instance because of similar burial needs, similar natural materials or similar architectural knowledge. The influences between the rock-cut tombs of different regions and periods can be seen in the particular details, and their relation to local burial customs. Questions are asked, such as: if there were Lycian tombs in the Classical period, why were there no rock-cut tombs in Pamphylia in this period; why did the ‘dominant Lycian Classical culture’ not influence Pamphylia; and what were the tombs of the higher social classes of the societies of Classical Pamphylia?

In the Ancient Anatolia “mountainous section” of Phrygia Region is the section between Dorylaion (today the province of Eskisehir), Kotiaion (today the province of Kutahya) and Akroinos (today the province of Afyon) and it was named “Highlands of Phrygia”. In addition to magnificent monuments related to Mother Goddess worship carved in rock in “Phrygian” period as well as monumental tombs of the same period, various types of tombs and chamber tombs carved in rock in Hellenistic and Roman Imperial Periods can be found in Highlands of Phrygia Region. In almost half of the rock-cut chamber tombs carved in rock in Mountainous Phrygia Region in Hellenistic and Roman Imperial Periods facade architecture and ornaments at various levels could be detected. Some of the chamber tombs having such facade architecture are monumental in nature and they are required to be assessed not only in terms of tomb typology but also in terms of “facade design” separately due to ornaments and certain other elements in their facades. For this reason, approximately 20 of the rock-cut chamber tombs with the monumental facade architecture in question which I consider to be significant examples have been examined in the article for different aspects. These are Kumbet-Deliklikaya, Kumbet – Solon’s tomb, Zehran, Gerdekkaya which is the most monumental rock-cut tombs with temple form in the region, Kirkgozkaya located in Sacred Phrygian Yazilikaya, Church, chamber tombs in Yapildak necropolis within the boundaries of the province of Eskisehir, chamber tombs in Ahlatciinler necropolis, rock-cut chamber tombs in Ayazin town, in Gulluk location, from the necropolis nearby village Demirli within the boundaries of the province of Afyon. Two significant elements of comparison have been taken into consideration while dating the rock-cut chamber tombs in Highlands of Phrygia Region: tomb typology and facade architecture/ornaments. Tomb typology is an issue quite separate from the main content of the article and consequently it was not discussed in detail in this study. For facade design, in addition to the ordinary comparisons to be made with structures or carvings in different Ancient regions and geographical regions, the comparisons made for rock carvings in Phrygia Region and Highlands of Phrygia Region with “false door steles” mostly used as “tursteine” or “doorstone” in the literature, reflections of them in the rock carvings in the region as well as Dokimeion type tombs which is one of the most significant tomb production centers of the ancient geography and located in splitting distance to Highlands of Phrygia are remarkable. Furthermore, description of the goddess in her own holy region on the rock in all most all periods is another special example for the concepts of “tradition” and “continuity”.

Modern commentators on the Vitae Prophetarum have tended to assume that every prophet’s bur-ial in this text was considered monumental in scale. A close examination of the language used to describe each burial yields a different, more nuanced picture. Vitae Prophetarum features prophets being buried in one of three ways: in a more-or-less monumental rock-cut tomb just outside Jerusalem, in a rock-cut tomb on the prophet’s own property, or in an indistinct field grave. This typology agrees with the emerging archaeological record of socioeconomic distinctions in burial practices. Whereas Jewish elites were buried in rock-cut tombs around Jerusalem or, more modestly, on their own estates, non-elites were interred in simple trench graves. This study demonstrates that the Vitae Prophetarum corroborates this relationship between burial types and socioeconomic distinctions, placing priestly elites and landowners in rock-cut tombs but the humbler prophets in trench graves.

ll worthwhile to visit Canosa to get a sense of the archaeological contexts—the rock cut tombs within which the figures were found. The history of these tombs comprises a series of discoveries, losses, and rediscoveries. Most of the tombs can be visited today.

:<i>Architecture in Ancient Central Italy: Connections in Etruscan and Early Roman Building</i>

The rock-cut chamber tombs form a very small percentage of the rock-cut tombs in Labraunda. The majority of these tombs, situated next to the sanctuary, were studied by Paul Åström in 1950 together with the sarcophagi; two improved from natural caves further from the sanctuary in both directions were found in a topographic survey conducted by Lars Karlsson in 2005, and finally one tomb at some distance away on the plain is also included in the article. The tombs are of various types and are probably to be dated to the Hellenistic and Roman periods. No finds have been recorded in them, either in 1950 or later.

The tomb monuments handled in this paper are located in the Olba region, east of Rough Cilicia. It is common for the tomb monuments which are named as D1 and D2 that they have a prostylos plan. Architrave and frieze are worked out of the same block and the upper construction elements show parallelities to each other. Both possess pediments. Besides there similarities, differences between the two tombs are obvious: The capitals of the columns of D1 are Ionic, those of D2 are Doric. D1 has a burial chamber constructed of carved stones. On the other hand the burial chamber of D2 is carved out of the main rock and has the cha­racteristics of a rock-cut tomb. The D1 tomb has a gable roof and a pediment. The roof of this tomb consists of plain blocks streched from one arch to the other. Over these blocks rest the gable formed roof blocks. Therefore this monument is a temple tomb in all its details. Furthermore the burial chamber shows the typical decoration of a temple tomb. By D2 the pediment was intended only for the front part and seems not to have a gable behind. D2 just imitates monumental tombs, itself being a rock-cut tomb. One of the most important criteria for the dating of the tombs are the Ionic capitals of D1. The par­allels for these capitals in Anatolia are dated between the late 2nd and 3rd centuries AD. The other tombs with Ionic capitals in the Olba region are also dated to the same period. Two of these are the temple tombs in Imbriogon Kome with Ionic capitals on the lower columns. The roof co­nstruction of these temple tombs stand also with their roof construction close to tomb D1. The third tomb with Ionic capital is a rock-cut tomb and should not be dated earlier than the 2nd century AD. The given facts point to early 3rd century AD for D1. It is possible to offer the same date also for D2 because of the similarities.

Horvat Midras is situated in the central Judean Foothills, approximately 6 km northeast of the Roman city of Beth Guvrin–Eleutheropolis, alongside the primary Roman route to Jerusalem. At its zenith during the Roman period in the 1st century CE, the settlement spanned over 12 hectares, making it one of the largest ancient rural sites in the area. This Jewish settlement was destroyed during the Bar Kokhba Revolt (132–136 CE).Our excavation team uncovered a Late Antique church in the northern section of the village. Beneath the church floor, we found earlier strata that include remains of a building and underground chambers from the Late Hellenistic to Early Roman periods. These interconnected underground chambers, forming a typical hiding complex, fell out of use after the Bar Kokhba Revolt.Following a period of abandonment in the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE, the remnants of the earlier structures were leveled to make way for a new basilica, which featured a white mosaic floor. This construction, dating to the 4th century CE, was linked to a venerated rock-cut tomb, which we believe was the primary purpose of the architectural complex. The tomb, created within a rock-cut chamber integrated into the earlier hiding complex, also dates to the 4th century.In the subsequent architectural phase, a basilical church with marble columns, capitals, and exquisite multicolored mosaic floors was built within the former basilica, reusing some of its columns and walls. The apse was constructed above the tomb, with access provided via a room north of the apse that served as a martyrium.We identified at least two construction phases for this church, distinguished by the mosaics in their floors. The second phase, dating to the third quarter of the 6th century CE, involved extending the bema westward, sealing the passage between the north aisle and the martyrium, creating a new northern entrance to the martyrium, and constructing what appears to be a baptismal font atop the passage leading from the martyrium to the empty tomb. Numismatic evidence and the style of the mosaics and capitals support this dating. The structure remained in use during the Umayyad period until its destruction in the earthquake of 749 CE.As at other sites in the Judean Foothills, the study of the subterranean chambers carved out of the local chalk provides valuable insights into the site’s history. The survey revealed nearly 60 artificial cavities and subterranean complexes, including cisterns, quarries, columbaria, ritual immersion baths, and storerooms. Ten cavities beneath the ancient settlement contained typical hiding complexes, which, along with the artifacts found, offer important information about the settlement during the late Second Temple period and the Bar Kokhba Revolt.Additionally, dozens of rock-cut tombs were excavated from the surrounding slopes. One decorated hypogeum built of ashlars dates to the 1st and 2nd centuries CE. This hypogeum is connected by a tunnel to a smaller rock-cut tomb with three arcosolia, hewn during the Byzantine period. Red crosses and the Greek letters ΙΧ (iota and chi, representing Ιησους Χριστος, or Jesus Christ) and ΑΩ (alpha and omega, alluding to Jesus’s statement “I am the Alpha and the Omega, the first and the last, the beginning and the end” [Revelation 22:13]) were found on the tomb walls.

This chapter inquires into the formal and metaphorical connections between medieval French churches and the paradisiacal garden. Drawing on textual and visual evidence, it demonstrates that monumental flora operated in tandem with organic motifs in other media, as well as with figural sculptures and the liturgy, to forge and promote links between sacred buildings and the earthly and celestial paradise. It explores the relationship between sculpted foliage and the Tree of Life, the hortus conclusus, and the Garden of Joseph of Arimathea (the location of Jesus’ rock-cut tomb and the site of the church of the Holy Sepulcher). The chapter concludes with an account of the possible negative connotations of vegetal motifs in church settings, which relate to the Fall and Expulsion of Adam and Eve from Eden.

The article discusses evidence uncovered by the mission of the Czech Institute of Egyptology, Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague at the necropolis of Abusir near Egypt’s capital Cairo. The tomb of Shepespuptah Idu was one of the four rock-cut tombs in the tomb complex of Princess Sheretnebty in Abusir South. It was uncovered in 2012 and its exploration continued until 2013. The identity of the tomb owner is known from hieratic inscriptions in his tomb chapel, which tell us about his name, nickname and titles. Shepespuptah held administrative titles associated with legal matters and royal offerings and the latter offices connect him with the economy of the royal funerary cults. The burial of Shepespuptah, which was found in his sarcophagus reveals interesting details about his health.

This article deals with five rock-cut tombs and an open-air shrine located at Madavank, near Van, in eastern Turkey. These monuments are described, analysed and compared with the similar structures built by the Urartians.It is proposed that the tombs and the open-air shrine at Madavank comprise a unique complex for the Van region.

On the basis of extensive material obtained during the work of the Russian archaeological mission, a generalization of the structural design of doors in Ancient Egyptian rock-cut tombs on the Eastern Plateau of Giza was carried out. The analysis showed that the size and structural design of the doors are directly related to the time of the chapel construction, the wealth of the tomb owner and natural or artificial features of the rocky area. Thus, the first rock-cut tombs whose owners had a high social status, which began to be built from the middle of the V dynasty on the eastern edge of the Eastern Plateau, are distinguished not only by their large size and extensive pictorial program of chapel decoration, but also by wide passages, inserted drums of better stone and well executed door fastening places. While towards the end of the Old Kingdom, when the Necropolis became compact and generally impoverished, there was a marked tendency not only to reduce the size of the passages to the chapels, but also to simplify the door arrangement and even to abandon the doors in most of the tombs. The development of gentle rocky areas and areas of poor rock quality in V–VI dynasties, leads to the appearance of steps to descend into the chapel, open courtyards and reduced dimensions of the passages to maintain their strength. Statistical analysis of the width of the passages and drums height in the chapels of the 72 currently available rock-cut tombs has demonstrated the existence of stable dimensional standards at the beginning of the development of the rock massif (c. mid V dynasty). For example, the tombs that appeared first in the tomb groups had an opening width of 10 or 12 ancient Egyptian palms (76–80 or 90–98 cm) and a drum height of 4 or 7 palms (30 or 52 cm). But towards the end of the Old Kingdom the width of the passages is reduced to about 8 palms (about 60 cm) and the height of the drums above the passages to 17 cm, and in many cases they disappear from the decoration of the entrances.

A survey-based project on Byzantine settlements around Alacadağ in Lycia has continued since 2014. It has aimed to identify and document late antique and medieval rural settlements located in the northern mountainous area of Demre (Myra), a town in the province of Antalya. A group of building remains were found during our fieldwork in 2020. These remains are located at forested Eşekkırığı in the Karabel district situated 17 km north of the ancient city of Myra. Its ancient ruins are scattered on the slopes and top of the hill to the southwest of the quarry located at the second kilometer of the dirt road from Karabel to Çamdağı. A small Byzantine castle sits at the top at an altitude of 1218 m. A tower and two workshops are located on the southern slope; three rock-cut tombs are on the eastern, western and northern slopes. This article aims to study the rock-cut tombs with their inscriptions. Two of the tombs bear inscriptions in the Lycian language. Both inscriptions can be dated to the second half of the fourth century BC on the basis of paleographic evaluation.

The paper continues a series of publications dealing with early explorers who contributed to the study of the eastern escarpment of the Giza Necropolis. Its protagonist is the Italian antiquarian Giovanni Battista Caviglia, the author of the first documented archaeological works in rock-cut tombs on the territory of the modern-day Russian concession at the pyramids. The paper argues that the Italian researcher had access to many burial complexes both in the southern and in the northern parts of the necropolis area currently studied by specialists from the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Contemporary reports demonstrate that Caviglia not only excavated ancient tombs, but also lived in one of the rock-cut complexes and used rock-cut chapels as storerooms for his finds. In 1835, the British officer Howard Vyse, who hired Caviglia for his excavations at Giza, built a large camp at the eastern escarpment of the necropolis. The author locates the camp in front of the tombs of Perinendju, Tjenty I, Tjenty II, and Khufuhotep and examines its fate: After the end of British excavations in 1837, the camp was converted into the first hotel at the foot of the pyramids. Narrative and visual materials presented in works of explorers of the first half of the 19th century correspond neatly with the material culture artifacts retrieved in Giza during contemporary Russian excavations. Despite the disappearance of the camp built by Vyse, the occupation layer preserved in the rock-cut tombs contains numerous finds and complexes that can be dated to the 18th–19th centuries. A thorough study of the activities and field practices of early explorers in the age of antiquarianism contributes to the better understanding of the general stratigraphy of the Giza Necropolis and works toward more accurate interpretation of the archaeological evidence obtained by contemporary specialists at the foot of the pyramids.