A Quantitative Study Focusing on Parents’ Perceptions of Boundary Setting and its Impact on their Relationship with their Children

Based on research documenting harmful long‐term consequences of parental conflict and divorce for offspring, relations between recollections of parental conflict, parental divorce, and social outcomes in young adulthood were examined. A total sample of 566 young adults from divorced and intact families completed measures of parental conflict, quality of parent–adult child relationships, anxiety in relationships with others, and perceptions of social support from others. As hypothesized, divorce and conflict had significant independent effects on outcomes in young adulthood. Effects of conflict were uniformly negative for quality of parent‐child relationships, perceived social support from others, and anxiety in personal relationships. Parental divorce was associated with lower quality father‐child relationships, yet divorce was associated with significant positive outcomes for quality of mother‐child relationships, social support, independence facilitated by both parents, and reduced anxiety in relationships. Importantly, these effects occurred regardless of participant sex, parental remarriage, and parental socioeconomic status.

The quality of relationships between adult children and their parents has been shown to have implications for psychological well-being for both generations (Umberson, 1992) and for the amount of support provided in times of need (Cooney & Uhlenberg, 1990). Extensive research has focused on the adult child as a source of care for elderly parents, an interest stemming from the potential of such help for forestalling elderly entrance into institutional care. Important in understanding these links is information about the quality of adult child-parent relationships soon after offspring reach adulthood. The quality of relationships at this early stage is likely to set the tone for relations throughout the life course. Despite the importance of this stage in the development of child-parent relationships, little is known about the way in which the parents' marital relationship when children are growing up affects the closeness of later ties. This study tests whether parents' reports of marital quality in 1980 predict children's reports of parent-child relationship quality in 1992. Our unique longitudinal design avoids same-source bias while allowing us to examine the long-term consequences of parents' marital quality and stability on children's relationships with their parents. This study fills several major gaps in our knowledge by allowing us to: (a) assess the effects of marital quality as well as divorce; (b) focus on the young adult's perspective; (c) determine which relationships are most at risk; and (d) increase our understanding of the mechanisms by which the parents' marriage affects adult offspring-parent relationships. PRIOR RESEARCH There are two streams of research that help inform the direction of our inquiry. One is from the child developmental literature. The second is research on the long-term effects of parental divorce and poor marital quality on adult offspring. Research on children finds that parental divorce is negatively related to the quality of parent-child relations. Hetherington, Cox, and Cox (1982) found that recently divorced custodial mothers were less affectionate toward their children and used harsher punishment than did mothers in intact two-parent families. While there was some improvement with the passage of time, tension persisted in mothers' relationships with sons. In relation to fathers, research consistently shows that contact between noncustodial fathers and children declines over time (Furstenberg & Nord, 1985; Seltzer & Bianchi, 1988). In a meta-analysis, Amato and Keith (1991) found that parental divorce was significantly associated with poorer relationships with both parents, although mean effects sizes were stronger for fathers (-.26) than mothers (-.19). Few studies have focused on the quality of the parental marital relationship in intact families. Isabella and Belsky (1985) investigated 64 children, beginning from the last trimester of pregnancy and ending when the child was 1 year of age. Mothers who experienced a marital decline were more likely to have insecurely attached infants. In a second study of 100 children from the last trimester of pregnancy to age 3, Belsky, Youngblade, Rovine, and Volling (1991) found that a decline in marital quality was manifested in the father being more intrusive and less supportive and the child behaving more negatively. For mothers, the analysis suggested a tendency to compensate for a decline in the marital relationship by being more supportive of the child. Studies of children in middle childhood and adolescence (Amato, 1986; Peterson & Zill, 1986) have also found stronger associations between parental marital conflict and poorer relations with fathers than mothers. Studies on the long-term effects of parental divorce and marital quality on adult offspring have seldom examined intergenerational relations. Amato and Booth (1991), drawing on a national sample of married people, examined the way in which the amount of contact with parents was related to parental divorce and, in cases in which no divorce occurred, retrospective accounts of parental marital quality. …

BackgroundMaternal mental health difficulties have been associated with poor outcomes for children, possibly because they affect the quality of the relationship between mother and child. We examined associations between maternal...

BackgroundDrug therapy combined with family therapy is currently the best treatment for adolescent depression. Nevertheless, family therapy requires an exploration of unresolved problems in the family system, which in practice presents certain difficulties. Previous studies have found that the perceptual differences of family function between parents and children reflect the problems in the family system.AimsTo explore the characteristics and role of family functioning and parent-child relationship between adolescents with depressive disorder and their parents.MethodsThe general information and clinical data of the 93 adolescents with depression were collected. The Family Functioning Assessment Scale and Parent-child Relationship Scale were used to assess adolescents with depressive disorder and their parents.Resultsa) The dimensions of family functioning in adolescents with depressive disorder were more negative in communication, emotional response, emotional involvement, roles, and overall functioning than their parents. The differences were statistically significant. Parent-child relationship dimensions: the closeness and parent-child total scores were more negative compared with the parents and the differences were statistically significant. b) All dimensions of parent-child relationship and family functioning in adolescents with depression except the time spent together were negatively correlated or significantly negatively correlated. c) The results of multivariate regression analysis showed: the characteristics of family functioning, emotional involvement, emotional response, family structure, and income of the adolescents with depressive disorder mainly affected the parent-child relationship.ConclusionsThere were perceptual differences in partial family functioning and parent-child relationship between adolescents with depressive disorder and their parents. Unclear roles between family members, mutual entanglement, too much or too little emotional investment, negligence of inner feelings, parental divorce, and low average monthly family income were the main factors causing adverse parent-child relationship. These perceptual differences have a relatively good predictive effect on family problems, and can be used as an important guide for exploring the family relationship in family therapy.

A Parent–Child Relationship Scale Derived From the Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Assessment (CAPA)

The objective of this study was to examine rates of depression among migrant children (MC) and left-behind children (LBC) as compared to non-left-behind children (NLBC) and also to examine the relationship between depression among these children and the quality of their parent-child and teacher-child relationships. This study collected data from a large sample of 3,759 children aged from 8 to 17 years, including 824 who had been left behind by one parent (LBCO), 423 who had been left behind by both parents (LBCB), 568 MC and 1944 NLBC. Children’s Depression Inventory–Short Form was used to measure child depression. Parent-Child Relationship Scale (PCRS) and Teacher-Child Relationship Scale (TCRS) were used to measure the quality of parent-child and teacher-child relationships, respectively. The results showed that the prevalence of depression was 10.5% among NLBC, 13.1% among LBCO, 16.1% among LBCB, and 20.1% among MC. Depression was related to parent-child relationship quality and teacher-child relationship quality. Negative parent-child relationship was more relevant to depression than negative teacher-child relationship among LBCB, while negative teacher-child relationship was the most correlated with depression among MC.

This study aimed to examine the ability of a new clinician-report tool, the Parent-Child Relationship Scale (P-CRS), to assess the individual contributions that parents and their children make within the parent-child relationship, as well as interactions between parents and children in terms of developmental psychopathology. As clinical diagnoses in early childhood is both important and difficult, it is necessary to identify tools that can effectively contribute to evaluating parent-child relationships during the diagnostic process. A sample of 268 mother-child dyads, taken from both public and private clinical settings, was assessed. Clinicians were asked to assess these dyads using the P-CRS after four to five sessions of clinical evaluation. The results indicated that the three areas assessed by the P-CRS—“Interaction”, “Child” and “Parent”—could have different impacts on the various aspects of the parent-child relationship within distinct diagnostic groups. Thus, our findings support the use of the P-CRS to assist with clinical diagnosis during early childhood.

It is known that some environmental variables can significantly affect the development of executive functions (EF). The primary aim of this study was to analyze whether some family conditions, such as the adolescent's perception of the quality of parent-child relationships and the socioeconomic status (SES; assessed according to education, occupational status, and income) are significantly associated with EF test scores. There were 370 Pakistani participants ranging in age 13 to 19 years who were selected and then individually administered the following tests taken from the Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System (D-KEFS): Trail Making Test (TMT), Design Fluency Test (DFT), Color Word Interference Test (CWIT), and Card Sorting Test (CST). In addition, a Parent-Child Relationship Scale (PCRS) also was administered. Results showed that perceived "neglect" in the PCRS was negatively associated with the 4 EF test scores. Parents' education and SES were positively associated with 3 EF measures: DFT, CWIT, and CST. Further correlational analyses revealed that inhibition (as measured with the CWIT) and problem-solving ability (as measured with the CST) were significantly associated with the perceived parent-child relationships. Some gender differences also were observed: males outperformed females on TMT, DFT, and CST, while females outperformed males in the CWIT. It was concluded that perceived parent-child relationships, SES, and parents' education are significantly associated with executive function test performance during adolescents.

Parents and children are connected throughout their lives. Each generation experiences life course transitions, and these, in turn, influence the lives of the other generation. Using data from the 19871988 and 1992-1994 waves of the National Survey of Families and Households, we examine how life course transitions experienced by each generation affect changes in the adult child-parent relationship. There is substantial variability in child-parent relationships. Approximately one fifth of relationships deteriorate, and one fifth improve over this time period. Results indicate that parental divorce and declines in parents' health lead to deteriorating child-parent relationships. Problems in a child's marriage also strain the adult child-parent relationship. Gender has an important mediating effect on intergenerational relations, as evidenced by the differential effects on son-mother and daughter-father relationships of having children, changing work hours, and increasing distance. Each generation is bound to fateful decisions and events in the other's life course. Glenn Elder (1985, p. 40) With few exceptions, the lives of parents and their children are connected in significant ways as long as both generations are living. Because of linkages across generations, it is likely that life course transitions experienced by members of one generation will have consequences for members of the other (Elder, 1985; Elder, Caspi, & Downey, 1986). For example, changes in an older parent's health or marital status are expected to have consequences for the lives of his or her adult children. Similarly, if an adult child marries, divorces, has a child, or loses a job, his or her parents' lives may be affected. In this study, we examine how life course changes in both generations influence the quality of the relationship that adult children have with their parents. Most adult children report having a good relationship with their parents. However, as we will show, there is variation in the reported quality of relationships, and relationships are not static. Some adult child-parent relationships improve; others deteriorate. We are interested in how life course transitions and other individual characteristics are related to changes in the quality of intergenerational relationships. What happens to a relationship when a parent is widowed or suffers a decline in health? What happens when a child divorces or has a baby? Previous studies have used cross-sectional data to examine how factors such as health and marital status are related to the quality of the child-parent relationship, to contact, and exchange. We use findings from this literature to formulate some expectations about how life course changes affect intergenerational relationships. However, this study goes beyond previous research in three ways. First, we examine changes over time in the quality of the adult child-parent relationship. Second, we consider the impact of life course transitions on child-parent relationships. Rather than looking at the effects of marital status or health status on the relationship, we examine effects of changes in these statuses. Third, we take into account transitions in both the adult child's life and the parent's life. With this perspective, we expect to provide a clearer picture of the ways that intergenerational relationships change in response to life events. TRANSITIONS AND INTERGENERATIONAL RELATIONSHIPS Background Reuben Hill's (1958) classic conceptualization of how stressors affect relationships within a family and the extension of his model by McCubbin and Patterson (1983) provide a useful starting point for this study. They argue that stressors such as death, illness, divorce, and unemployment alter relationships between family members. For example, the illness or unemployment of one family member may require others to fill new roles, which they find stressful. Similarly, the addition or loss of a family member may disrupt existing family roles and require readjustments. …

The development of children is shaped by a complex interplay of biological, psychological, and social factors, yet the role of fathers remains underrepresented in research. This study contributes to addressing this gap by examining paternal involvement through the Parent-Child Relationship Scale (P-CRS), an observational tool previously validated for mother-child interactions. The sample included 204 father-child dyads, with children aged 6 months to 5 years (mean age: 43.3 months), encompassing both clinical and non-clinical groups. Experienced clinicians conducted in vivo observations across 4-5 sessions, scoring interactions along three dimensions: parent, child, and interaction. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) validated the P-CRS's applicability to father-child relationships, confirming its psychometric robustness and alignment with the factors observed in mother-child dyads. These findings highlight the unique and complementary role of fathers in shaping developmental trajectories and underscore the importance of incorporating fathers in parenting interventions and assessments. Additionally, they demonstrate the P-CRS's effectiveness in capturing the nuanced dynamics of early parent-child relationships. Future research should investigate longitudinal differences in parental roles and expand the P-CRS's application to diverse family structures.

Background: There is a growing body of literature on the effectiveness of second and third wave psychotherapies for treating generalized anxiety disorder. Objectives: The aim of the present study was to compare the effectiveness of cognitive- behavior (CBT) group therapy (Borkovec model) and mindfulness based cognitive therapy (MBCT) on quality of life and parent-child relationship in generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) among female participants. Methods: A semi experimental design using pre and post-test and a four-month follow up was used. The statistical population comprised of females with generalized anxiety disorder, who had at least one primary school-aged daughter in the first and third district of Tehran. The sample consisted of 36 females with GAD. Participants’ selection was based on availability and they were assigned randomly to 2 groups of CBT and MBCT. The research was conducted in the first half of 2014. The following measurement tools were used, GAD-7 questionnaire, world health o quality of life scale (WHO-QOL BREF), and Parent Child Relationship Scale (CPRS). Data were analyzed via Repeated measures analysis of variance test. Results: Although the results showed efficacy of CBT and MBCT after the intervention and during follow up (P 0.05). Conclusions: It could be inferred from the results that MBCT could be utilized similar to CBT as an effective treatment in adjunct to pharmacotherapy for females with GAD.

The present study measured the efficacy of the Parent-Child Relationship Scale (P-CRS) in assessing the relationship between parents and children. The aims of the study were to explore how the scale scores change in relation to age and sex of the children, evaluate its ability to capture relational difficulties, and investigating its usefulness to assess the parent-child relationship in the context of certain psychopathological conditions. A total of 322 clinicians rated 542 mother-child dyads (92% Italian, 8% other nationality). The clinical group was comprised of 267 children with confirmed clinical conditions. The control group was comprised of 275 children with typical development, rated by clinicians in their private offices after four to five evaluative sessions. Descriptive statistics were captured and ANOVAs and linear regression analyses were performed to investigate in both groups the efficacy of the scale in assessing the parent-child relationship. Finally, to test P-CRS accuracy, optimal cutoff scores for each subscale were computed using the ROC method. The findings provide evidence for the P-CRS ability to capture relational difficulties in both groups, showing its utility as screening tool. Thus, the results support that P-CRS can be used for exploring how different relationship patterns can occur in different clinical conditions.

BackgroundThe quality of the parent–child relationship has an important effect on a wide range of child outcomes. The evaluation of interventions to promote healthy parenting and family relationships is dependent on outcome measures which can quantify the quality of parent–child relationships. Between the Mothers’ Object Relations – Short Form (MORS-SF) scale for babies and the Child–parent Relationship Scale (C-PRS) there is an age gap where no validated scales are available. We report the development and testing of an adaptation of the MORS-SF; the MORS (Child) scale and its use in children from the age of 2 years to 4 years. This scale aims to capture the nature of the parent–child relationship in a form which is short enough to be used in population surveys and intervention evaluations.MethodsConstruct and criterion validity, item salience and internal consistency were assessed in a sample of 166 parents of children aged 2–4 years old and compared with that of the C-PRS. The performance of the MORS (Child) as part of a composite measure with the HOME inventory was compared with that of the C-PRS using data collected in a randomised controlled trial and the national evaluation of Sure Start.ResultsMORS (Child) performed well in children aged 2–4 with high construct and criterion validity, item salience and internal consistency. One item in the C-PRS failed to load on either subscale and parents found this scale slightly more difficult to complete than the MORS (Child). The two measures performed very similarly in a factor analysis with the HOME inventory producing almost identical loadings.ConclusionsAdapting the MORS-SF for children aged 2–4 years old produces a scale to assess parent–child relationships that is easy to use and outperforms the more commonly used C-PRS in several respects.

Both Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (AD/HD) and divorce are very prevalent in western societies, and they may occur together. AD/HD is generally viewed as a neurobiological disorder, which has led to a commonly held belief that social-environmental factors play little role in the symptom profile of children diagnosed with the disorder. This study investigated the association between parental divorce, remarriage, multiple transitions, the quality of relationships with family members and the psychological well-being of children and adolescents with AD/HD. First, differences in children’s AD/HD symptom profiles in relation to parents’ divorce status (single/multiple divorce) and family composition (single parent/stepfamily) were examined. Second, the association between the quality of children’s relationships with each family member and parents’ marital status (divorced/non-divorced) and family composition was investigated. In addition, age, gender and AD/HD subtype differences were assessed. Third, the association between the quality of children’s interactions with family members and children’s AD/HD symptom profile was explored. No significant differences in children’s behavioural profiles were found in terms of parents’ divorce status. Living in stepfamilies was associated with greater AD/HD severity and social malfunctioning. Disruptive parent–child and sibling relationships were found to be related to children’s age, gender, AD/HD subtype and parents’ marital status. Further, poor interactions with family members correlated with children’s AD/HD severity and psychological well-being. In summary, divorce, remarriage and the quality of relationships with family members are important correlates of the symptom profile of children with AD/HD, and this emphasises the need for special treatment modules for these families.

El principal objetivo de este estudio fue analizar las asociaciones entre el divorcio parental y el conflicto interparental con la calidad de las relaciones paterno-filiales y materno-filiales, en una muestra española de 1078 adultos jóvenes. También se analizó la función moderadora del género de estos adultos jóvenes. Nuestros resultados sugirieron que el conflicto interparental se asocia con relaciones paterno-filiales y materno-filiales de menor calidad, mientras que el divorcio parental se asocia de forma más negativa con la calidad de la relación con el padre que con la madre. Además, el género de los hijos adultos únicamente moderó la asociación entre el divorcio parental y la calidad de las relaciones paterno-filiales, de manera que las mujeres de familias divorciadas obtienen puntuaciones más bajas en la calidad de la relación paterno-filial que las mujeres de familias no divorciadas. Los resultados aportan mayor información a la literatura empírica existente y promueven una mejor comprensión de las asociaciones complejas existentes entre el divorcio y conflicto parental con la calidad de las relaciones parento-filiales, en un contexto cultural donde hay escasa investigación sobre el tema. The main aim of this study was to analyze the associations between parental divorce and interparental conflict with father-child and mother-child relationship quality, in a Spanish young adult sample. The moderating effect of adult child´s gender was also analyzed. Using a sample of 1,078 Spanish young adults, our results suggested that interparental conflict was more strongly associated with lower mother-child and father-child relationship quality, and that parental divorce was more strongly associated with father-child relationship quality than with mother-child relationship quality. In addition, adult child´s gender only moderated the effect of parental divorce on father-child relationship quality, such that women from divorced families score lower on father-child relationship quality than women from non-divorced families. Findings add to the existing literature and promote a better comprehension of the complex associations between parental divorce and conflict with parent-child relationship quality in an understudied cultural context.