A qualitative assessment of corporate timberland companies’ participation in Forest carbon programs

The book, entitling ‘Recent Readings in Sustainable Forest Management Practices’, is a comprehensive compilation that delves into the multifaceted realm of sustainable forestry. Written by a team of seasoned experts, this book provides a nuanced exploration of contemporary issues, emerging trends, and innovative practices in forest management. As a vital resource for professionals, researchers, and policymakers, the book tackles a range of topics crucial to the sustainability and resilience of our forests. The book kicks off with an in-depth examination of technical forest management practices. Covering aspects such as silviculture, harvesting techniques, and forest regeneration, this section provides insights into the latest methodologies and technologies shaping the sustainable management of forest ecosystems. Readers gain a comprehensive understanding of how technical advancements are influencing decision-making processes for forest conservation and utilization. A critical aspect of sustainable forest management, soil health forms the cornerstone of this section. The book explores the intricate relationship between forest ecosystems and soil nutrients, offering readers valuable insights into sustainable soil management practices. Topics include nutrient cycling, soil conservation strategies, and the impact of climate change on soil health, providing a holistic view of the challenges and opportunities associated with maintaining soil fertility. Recognizing the importance of community engagement, the book dedicates a section to participatory forest management. Through case studies and theoretical frameworks, readers gain an understanding of how involving local communities in decision-making processes contributes to the sustainable use and conservation of forest resources. The section also explores the socio-economic dynamics and governance structures that underpin successful participatory initiatives. In an era marked by rapid urbanization, the book addresses the vital intersection of forests and urban environments. Urban forestry emerges as a key theme, exploring the role of trees and green spaces in urban settings. From urban planning and biodiversity conservation to the psychological and health benefits of urban forests, this section sheds light on the pivotal role that trees play in enhancing the quality of life in cities. A diverse array of forest resources beyond timber takes center stage in this section. The book explores the sustainable harvest and utilization of non-timber forest products, ranging from medicinal plants and herbs to fruits, resins, and handicrafts. By highlighting the economic and ecological significance of these products, the authors underscore the importance of incorporating them into sustainable forest management strategies. The nexus between forests and rural livelihoods is a central theme woven throughout the book. Readers gain insights into how sustainable forest management practices can contribute to poverty alleviation, community development, and the enhancement of rural livelihoods. Case studies and real-world examples illustrate the positive impact of integrating forest management with local economic activities. A chapter explores the role of forests as a repository of medicinal plants and the sustainable practices associated with their harvest. Readers gain a deeper understanding of the conservation challenges, ethical considerations, and cultural dimensions surrounding the use of medicinal plants, emphasizing the need for responsible and sustainable management. "Recent Readings in Sustainable Forest Management Practices" serves as a valuable compendium, offering a rich tapestry of insights into the diverse and interconnected facets of sustainable forest management. By addressing technical, ecological, social, and economic dimensions, the book provides a holistic perspective that is essential for navigating the complex landscape of contemporary forestry practices.

The stability and effectiveness of international climate agreements : the role of carbon trade, bargaining power and enforcement

Better information on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and mitigation potential in the agricultural sector is necessary to manage these emissions and identify responses that are consistent with the food security and economic development priorities of countries. Critical activity data (what crops or livestock are managed in what way) are poor or lacking for many agricultural systems, especially in developing countries. In addition, the currently available methods for quantifying emissions and mitigation are often too expensive or complex or not sufficiently user friendly for widespread use.The purpose of this focus issue is to capture the state of the art in quantifying greenhouse gases from agricultural systems, with the goal of better understanding our current capabilities and near-term potential for improvement, with particular attention to quantification issues relevant to smallholders in developing countries. This work is timely in light of international discussions and negotiations around how agriculture should be included in efforts to reduce and adapt to climate change impacts, and considering that significant climate financing to developing countries in post-2012 agreements may be linked to their increased ability to identify and report GHG emissions (Murphy et al 2010, CCAFS 2011, FAO 2011).

Forests play a critical role in combating climate change and promoting sustainable development. They are often referred to as the "lungs of the Earth" because they absorb carbon dioxide and release oxygen, making them vital for regulating the planet's climate and supporting life. Forests act as carbon sinks, absorbing and storing significant amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Trees, through the process of photosynthesis, convert carbon dioxide into organic matter, which is stored in their biomass and in the soil. This process helps reduce the concentration of greenhouse gases, mitigating climate change. Forests are home to a vast array of plant and animal species. Biodiversity is essential for the stability and resilience of ecosystems. Maintaining healthy and diverse forests helps ensure that ecosystems can adapt to changing environmental conditions and continue to provide ecosystem services that support sustainable development. Forests contribute to climate regulation by influencing temperature, precipitation, and weather patterns. They release water vapor into the atmosphere through a process known as transpiration, which can lead to increased cloud cover and precipitation, thus affecting local and regional climates. Forests play a crucial role in protecting watersheds and maintaining the quality and availability of freshwater resources. Tree roots stabilize soil, reducing erosion and maintaining water quality. Forested areas often act as natural filters, removing pollutants and sediments from runoff. Forests provide livelihoods for millions of people worldwide, especially in rural areas. Sustainable forest management practices can ensure a steady supply of timber, non-timber forest products, and ecosystem services, contributing to the economic well-being of local communities. Forests offer various ecosystem services, including regulating services (climate regulation, water purification, erosion control), provisioning services (timber, fuelwood, non-timber forest products), cultural services (recreation, spiritual value), and supporting services (nutrient cycling, pollination). Adopting sustainable forest management practices is crucial to maintaining the benefits provided by forests. Sustainable logging, afforestation, and reforestation efforts can help maintain and even enhance the carbon sequestration capacity of forests. Recognizing and respecting the rights of indigenous peoples in forest management is essential. Indigenous communities often have valuable traditional knowledge of sustainable forest practices and can play a key role in conservation and sustainable development efforts. Efforts to restore degraded forests and establish new forested areas (reforestation and afforestation) can contribute to climate change mitigation and the protection of biodiversity. Global agreements such as the Paris Agreement and the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) acknowledge the importance of forests in climate action and sustainable development, providing a framework for global cooperation. In conclusion, forests are integral to addressing climate change and promoting sustainable development. Efforts to conserve and sustainably manage forests are essential to achieving environmental, social, and economic goals at both local and global levels. Recognizing the multifaceted benefits of forests and integrating them into climate and development strategies is crucial for a more sustainable and resilient future.

PROTOCOL: Incentives for climate mitigation in the land use sector: a mixed-methods systematic review of the effectiveness of payment for environment services (PES) on environmental and socio-economic outcomes in low- and middle-income countries.

BackgroundPolicies to mitigate climate change by reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions can yield public health benefits by also reducing emissions of hazardous co-pollutants, such as air toxics and particulate matter. Socioeconomically disadvantaged communities are typically disproportionately exposed to air pollutants, and therefore climate policy could also potentially reduce these environmental inequities. We sought to explore potential social disparities in GHG and co-pollutant emissions under an existing carbon trading program—the dominant approach to GHG regulation in the US and globally.Methods and findingsWe examined the relationship between multiple measures of neighborhood disadvantage and the location of GHG and co-pollutant emissions from facilities regulated under California’s cap-and-trade program—the world’s fourth largest operational carbon trading program. We examined temporal patterns in annual average emissions of GHGs, particulate matter (PM2.5), nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, volatile organic compounds, and air toxics before (January 1, 2011–December 31, 2012) and after (January 1, 2013–December 31, 2015) the initiation of carbon trading. We found that facilities regulated under California’s cap-and-trade program are disproportionately located in economically disadvantaged neighborhoods with higher proportions of residents of color, and that the quantities of co-pollutant emissions from these facilities were correlated with GHG emissions through time. Moreover, the majority (52%) of regulated facilities reported higher annual average local (in-state) GHG emissions since the initiation of trading. Neighborhoods that experienced increases in annual average GHG and co-pollutant emissions from regulated facilities nearby after trading began had higher proportions of people of color and poor, less educated, and linguistically isolated residents, compared to neighborhoods that experienced decreases in GHGs. These study results reflect preliminary emissions and social equity patterns of the first 3 years of California’s cap-and-trade program for which data are available. Due to data limitations, this analysis did not assess the emissions and equity implications of GHG reductions from transportation-related emission sources. Future emission patterns may shift, due to changes in industrial production decisions and policy initiatives that further incentivize local GHG and co-pollutant reductions in disadvantaged communities.ConclusionsTo our knowledge, this is the first study to examine social disparities in GHG and co-pollutant emissions under an existing carbon trading program. Our results indicate that, thus far, California’s cap-and-trade program has not yielded improvements in environmental equity with respect to health-damaging co-pollutant emissions. This could change, however, as the cap on GHG emissions is gradually lowered in the future. The incorporation of additional policy and regulatory elements that incentivize more local emission reductions in disadvantaged communities could enhance the local air quality and environmental equity benefits of California’s climate change mitigation efforts.

ABSTRACTThis study examined rural peoples’ intention to adopt sustainability practices in communally managed forests in Vhembe district, South Africa, using the theory of planned behavior as a conceptual framework. A total of 155 respondents were surveyed. The data was analyzed using structural equation modeling (SEM). The results showed that rural people have a strong intention to adopt sustainable forest-use and management practices. Out of the three constructs comprising the theory of planned behavior, subjective norm (SN) and attitude to behavior (AB) positively correlated with intention, with SN having the strongest influence on intention. Perceived behavioral control (PBC), which is the third construct, negatively correlated with intention. The study indicates that respondents’ subjective belief about the approval or disapproval of sustainable forest management (SFM) practices by other relevant people mainly influenced their intention to adopt or not adopt such practices. Thus, strategies and policies to enhance the sustainable management of communally owned forests in South Africa need to consider local actor contexts and sociocultural norms and values. In this regard, the engagement of influential people at the community level, and the demonstration of the short- and long-term benefits of sustainable forest use and management practices offer promising entry points.

Carbon pricing is about the explicit pricing of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, of which carbon dioxide is the most important. GHG emissions, which are normally measured in tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent units, are responsible for global warming and hence the greatest environmental externality of our age. Carbon pricing is a mechanism for making society account for the external damage caused by carbon emissions in economic decision making. There are two main ways of pricing carbon dioxide emissions, either via a carbon tax or via the introduction of an emissions trading scheme whereby those emitting carbon into the atmosphere are required to surrender permits which reflect the quantity of emissions they are responsible for. These emission permits are tradeable and hence command a price and, in some respects, operate in a similar way to a carbon tax. Thus, we will discuss both carbon pricing and emissions trading, as the literature on both is closely related. Emissions trading exists for certain other pollutants (such as sulphur dioxide) and we will discuss some of the literature related to this. However, most of the literature on emissions trading relates to carbon dioxide emissions, as these are by far the most valuable traded emissions globally. The literature on carbon pricing and emissions trading is wide ranging and constantly being updated with new analyses. Much of the literature is written by economists who are seeking to apply market-based approaches to the solution of environmental problems. The article starts by looking at the general context in which carbon pricing and emissions trading sits before discussing introductory texts which relate to the subject and going on to introduce the relevant classic literature in environmental economics. It then proceeds to more applied literature, beginning with discussions of early examples of emissions trading and carbon taxation, before continuing to studies of the impact of carbon pricing and emissions trading and those which explain the nature of the schemes we observe. The article continues with literature which looks at the Europe Union Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS) for GHGs and other important carbon pricing schemes. It then moves on to the literature on the prospects for a global carbon price, on interactions with other climate policies, on distributional concerns about the imposition of a price on carbon. Finally, it concludes with an introduction to relevant official publications and sources of data on carbon emissions and carbon prices.

One of the most current pressing environmental problems threatening the well-being and survival of the global community is climate change. The change in the Earth's climate is believed to be caused by human-induced activities such as the several decades of uncontrolled emissions of greenhouse gases. There is now a universal consensus that climate change is a global problem that needs urgent global attention and response. The need to compel a paradigm shift in the emissions of several gases accountable for global warming with the resultant effect of climate change led to the negotiation of an international agreement known as the Kyoto Protocol. The Kyoto Protocol commits industrialized nations and nations with economies in transition to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions and achieve their reductions targets. To achieve its aim, the Kyoto Protocol initiated three innovative market-based mechanisms, now known as the carbon market, designed to help Parties meet their national greenhouse emissions reduction targets. This paper reviews the market-based mechanisms (Carbon Market) of the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change to ascertain whether the Kyoto Protocol has achieved significant global greenhouse gas emissions reduction through its carbon market. The paper also examines the compliance mechanism, the successes, and failures of the Kyoto Protocol. The paper concludes with a recommendation that both the developed and developing countries must be involved in greenhouse gas emissions reduction if any significant global greenhouse gas emissions reduction is to be achieved. Keywords: Kyoto Protocol, Kyoto Protocol market-based mechanisms, Kyoto compliance mechanism, Kyoto Protocol successes, Kyoto Protocol failures. DOI: 10.7176/IAGS/86-03 Publication date: September 30 th 2020

implemented projects.While additionality and the quantification of emission reductions are, in principle, key considerations for unit quality for crediting mechanisms, the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions impact from using credits from already implemented projects is more complex.If the supply of credits considerably exceeds demand, a key consideration for the global GHG emissions impact is whether already implemented projects would continue to reduce GHG emissions even without credit revenues, or whether they are 'vulnerable' to discontinuing GHG abatement.A detailed assessment of the status and operating conditions of projects under the Clean Development Mechanism, and their marginal costs of supplying credits, shows that most projects would continue GHG abatement even if they cannot sell credits.If CORSIA allows airline operators the unlimited use of offset credits from these projects, this will not only undermine its environmental objectives but also lead to continued low carbon prices, and thus neither offer incentives for new investments nor lead to any significant revenues for already implemented projects.The thesis recommends limiting eligibility under CORSIA to new or 'vulnerable' projects (Chapter 5).Unit quality is also a key consideration when linking emissions trading systems (ETSs).As linking of ETSs faces several practical and political challenges and risks, including with regard to whether allowances have 'quality' and whether linking provides incentives or disincentives to enhance the ambition of caps, policy-makers are considering also restricted forms of linking ETSs.The thesis uses a simple economic model and three criteria -abatement outcome, economic implications, and feasibility -to assess three different options for implementing restricted linking of ETSs: quotas, exchange rates, or discount rates.The analysis shows that quotas can enhance cost-effectiveness relative to no linking and allow policy-makers to retain control on the extent of unit flows.Exchange rates could enhance abatement and economic benefits or have unintended adverse implications for cost-effectiveness and total abatement, depending on how rates are set.Due to information asymmetries between the regulated entities and policy-makers setting the exchange rate, and uncertainties about future developments, setting exchange rates in a manner that avoids such unintended consequences could prove difficult.Discount rates, in contrast, can ensure that both cost-effectiveness and total abatement are enhanced.The thesis recommends the consideration of quotas or discount rates, but to refrain from using exchange rates, due to the environmental integrity risks (Chapter 6).The varying scope and ambition of current NDC targets, and possible disincentives to broaden their scope and enhance their ambition, could be addressed by facilitating the adoption of ambitious and economy-wide mitigation targets and by preventing the transfer of carbon market units in situations of high environmental integrity risks.This latter approach could be implemented through eligibility criteria or limits on the generation, transfer or use of carbon market units.Limits could in particular address the risk that some countries have mitigation targets that correspond to higher levels of Summary 10 emissions than independent projections of their likely emissions.If such 'hot air' can be transferred to other countries, it could increase aggregated emissions and create a perverse incentive for countries not to enhance the ambition of future mitigation targets.The thesis proposes a typology for such limits, explores key design options, and tests different types of limits in the context of fifteen countries.The analysis indicates that limits to international transfers could, if designed appropriately, prevent most of the hot air contained in current mitigation targets from being transferred, but also involve trade-offs between different policy objectives (Chapter 7).The thesis concludes by discussing how four strategies to mitigate environmental integrity risks -robust accounting, ensuring unit quality, facilitating economy-wide and ambitious mitigation targets, and restricting international transfers -could be implemented under the Paris Agreement and CORSIA (see Figure S-1).Crediting mechanisms pose higher risks for environmental integrity than linking of ETSs and should therefore have a limited role in the future.International oversight can reduce the risks to environmental integrity to some extent.Acquiring countries could also reduce risks by only acquiring units from countries that also have ambitious NDC targets.Overall, policy-makers should not regard carbon market approaches as the one and only 'silver-bullet' to mitigating climate change but carefully assess what policy instrument or mix of instruments is best suited achieve and balance different policy objectives, in particular in light of the rapid transition that is necessary to achieve the goals of the Paris Agreement (Chapter 8). How can the environmental integrity of international carbon market mechanisms be ensured in the new context of the Paris Agreement?To assess this, further research questions are:1. How should environmental integrity be defined in the context of international carbon market mechanisms?1. Accounting for the international transfer of carbon market units: Article 6.2 of the Paris Agreement requires countries to "apply robust accounting to ensure, inter alia, the avoidance of double counting".A lack of robust accounting could undermine environmental integrity in several ways (Chapter 2).If emission reductions are double counted, for example, actual global GHG emissions are higher than the sum of what individual countries report (see Chapter 3).Establishing and implementing robust accounting rules is thus an important prerequisite for achieving environmental integrity (see Chapters 2 and 3).An important question is therefore how robust accounting can be implemented in the new context of the Paris Agreement, taken into account the diverse scopes, metrics, types and timeframes of current NDC targets.Chapter 7: When less is more: Limits to international transfers under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement Chapter 8: Discussion, conclusions and recommendations Note: Dark green indicates that this aspect is the main focus of the chapter.Bright green indicates that this aspect is also considered.Grey indicates that this aspect is not considered.Chapter 5 takes up a matter that is controversially debated under both ICAO and the Paris Agreement: whether carbon market units from the Kyoto mechanisms should be eligible for use after 2020.The chapter assesses the environmental and economic implications of using offset credits from the largest mechanism to date -the CDM -under CORSIA, and analyses what type of eligibility criteria are necessary to perverse environmental integrity.Towards this end, a model is established that estimates the supply potential and the costs of generating certified emission reductions (CERs) for each of the 8,000 registered CDM projects and assesses under which conditions creating new demand for CERs from already existing projects triggers actual emission reductions, taking into account differences between project types.Chapter 6 turns the focus from crediting mechanisms to another form of international carbon market mechanisms: the linking of ETSs.Several jurisdictions are considering, or 'hot air' -a term used in context of mitigation targets that countries over-achieve without pursuing further mitigation actions (Boehringer, 2000;den Elzen & de Moor, 2002;Kollmuss et al., 2015).They could, however, also be used to address other environmental integrity risks, such as the lack of robust accounting system, concerns related unit quality, or possible disincentives to enhance mitigation action in the future.This chapter proposes a typology for limits, explores key design options, and quantitatively tests different types of limits in the context of fifteen countries.Lastly, Chapter 8 discusses the overall findings of the thesis, provides conclusions and makes recommendations.These can inform the ongoing negotiations on Article 6 of the Paris Agreement, and the implementation of carbon market mechanisms by countries, jurisdictions and international organizations, such as ICAO.Chapter 2Environmental integrity of international carbon market mechanisms 19Chapter 2Environmental integrity of international carbon market mechanisms under the Paris

This study aims to analyze sustainable forest management practices in the Amazon, addressing the environmental, social and economic impacts, as well as the challenges for their implementation. The research was carried out through a systematic review of the literature, using articles from specialized journals on the subject. The analysis revealed that sustainable forest management practices, such as selective logging, the use of non-timber products and agroforestry systems, have shown positive results in terms of biodiversity conservation, soil regeneration and maintenance of the hydrological cycle. However, the adoption of these practices is still limited by barriers such as lack of infrastructure, technical training and the economic pressure of illegal activities such as livestock farming and agriculture. The environmental impacts of sustainable forest management, such as the preservation of biodiversity and the role of the Amazon in climate regulation, are evident, but illegal deforestation and forest fragmentation continue to compromise these advances. The implementation of sustainable forest management depends on effective public policies, institutional support and greater participation of local communities, requiring coordinated action between the different sectors of society to ensure the sustainability of the Amazon. It is concluded that, despite the difficulties, sustainable management is essential for the preservation of the Amazon and global climate balance. Keywords: environmental impacts, sustainable practices, public policies.

Time to pay the piper: Fossil fuel companies’ reparations for climate damages

Canada's forests —particularly the boreal—are a major storehouse of carbon. How they are managed could significantly affect Canada's greenhouse gas emissions while also presenting a new revenue source for forest managers. This study attempts to assess how a carbon price could affect forest management, particularly in Canada's boreal plains region. An integrated modelling approach is developed to incorporate both forest carbon and timber supply considerations within an optimal management framework. This modelling approach allows for consideration of alternative market and regula tory scenarios, along with a range of possible management intensity and harvest scheduling options over the landscape. The overall conclusion is that carbon incentives will increase the value of the boreal forest—potentially quite signifi cantly— and will generally encourage management changes consistent with sustainable forest management practices.

Forests mitigate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by capturing CO₂ and storing it as carbon in various forms, including living biomass, dead wood, soil, and forest litter. Importantly, when trees are harvested, a portion of the above-ground biomass is converted into harvested wood products (HWPs), which can retain carbon for decades. With approximately 7 million hectares of forest (30% of its land area), Romania significantly contributes to the country’s carbon budget through the HWP pool. Using country-specific data from 1961 to 2022 and an IPCC method, we tracked HWP carbon storage and projected future scenarios to evaluate the category’s significance in achieving the 2050 climate target. During this period, the carbon stored in Romanian HWPs more than doubled from 28.20 TgC to 60.76 TgC, with sawnwood products as major contributors. Fluctuations were influenced by domestic policies, market dynamics, and industry changes, notably after the 1990s. Annual carbon inflow dipped to 0.65 TgC in 1994 and peaked at 2.54 TgC in 2013. By analyzing the scenarios, we demonstrated that a moderate growth trajectory in carbon inflow, combined with a focus on producing long-lived wood products, could double carbon stock changes by 2050 to 4.4 TgC—roughly 4% of the country’s current total emissions excluding the LULUCF sector. Additionally, based on sustainable forest management practices in Romania, this approach would significantly enhance the carbon pool and its importance in achieving the country’s climate policies.

Different grazing management strategies change greenhouse gas emissions and global warming potential in global grasslands