A practical guide to merging behavior and conservation

Conservation biologists have begun to apply general principles of animal behavior to solve conservation problems. Four major edited volumes and a number of reviews published in the last decade have proposed theoretical and empirical links between behavior and conservation (see the Animal Behavior Society's Conservation Committee website: http://www.animalbehavior.org/ABS/Conservation/). To strengthen this multidisciplinary collaboration, it is essential for conservation biologists to understand the types of questions addressed by the field of animal behavior (proximate and ultimate) and the implications of these questions for conservation biology, the conservation literature, and recovery teams. Conservation biologists may be unfamiliar with the jargon of behavioral biologists, but lack of knowledge is no excuse to ignore animal behavior. We believe that behavioral biologists have much to contribute to conservation biology and that by involving conservation behaviorists too late in conservation plans or recovery teams, we will continue to suffer avoidable setbacks, waste precious funds, and lose priceless animals. The Nobel Prize-winning ethologist Nikko Tinbergen first outlined two main types of questions that could be asked about any behavioral phenomenon. Proximate questions focus on behavior's development or immediate causation. Ultimate questions focus on behavior's evolutionary history or current adaptive utility. Thus, by definition, conservation behavior should be viewed as a field of study that encompasses multiple levels and incorporates a variety of disciplines, including genetics, physiology, behavioral ecology, and evolution. Understanding social relationships that lead to fitness (ultimate questions) has clear links to conservation. For instance, infanticide by males is an adaptive reproductive strategy that needs to be considered in the management of some species, such as bears and African lions. Managers typically view males as superfluous and model populations based on the number of breeding females. However, in species where males kill offspring sired by other males to encourage females to come into estrus and mate with them, any subsequent social disruption has a large effect on population size. Normally adaptive reproductive strategies have other consequences when individuals encounter anthropogenic changes. For instance, as water quality declines, it becomes more difficult for fish that use visual signals to make adaptive mate-choice decisions. As a result, fish may hybridize and suffer reduced individual fitness and the population itself may decrease. Some argue that ultimate questions are most important for conservation because they link variation in behavior with fitness. However, understanding how proximate processes affect survival is also crucial. For example, we know that training captive-reared animals to recognize predators may increase post-release survival. Yet further studies on the developmental contexts, presence of sensitive periods, and types of experiences required may yield more efficient and effective training programs. From a management perspective, searching for the fitness consequences of behavioral responses may provide insights into the impacts of certain human activities on wildlife, but this does not necessarily translate into conservation gains. We believe that mechanistic research will increase the predictive power of our conceptual and mathematical models. In general, by searching for mechanisms, we search for a deeper understanding of how animals make adaptive decisions. And by taking this sort of uniquely behavioral approach, we may gain important information about how to better manage populations. For instance, a strategy to better manage the effects of tourists on wildlife is to understand the proximate mechanisms underlying the response of animals to humans. We recognize the importance of documenting population-level responses to human disturbance. However, to reduce negative effects on wildlife and increase the number of species that can be viewed by tourists, managers must know how to control rates of human visitation to protected areas. To predict habitat use in areas with different levels of human visitation, we need to determine the number of tourists per unit time and area that do not negatively affect the frequency of resource use (e.g., feeding, nesting, and roosting sites) by target species. In due course, we must identify behavioral indicators of disturbance and develop an understanding of the behavioral mechanisms that explain the tolerance of some, but not all, species to human disturbance. It is essential to recognize these qualitatively different questions along with their applied implications when assessing the value of conservation behavior. Habitat loss is a huge threat to biodiversity, yet habitat improvements are often made without regard to how species perceive the habitat (a proximate question) or thebehavioral consequences of such intervention. For instance, adding nest boxes (i.e., increasing nesting habitat) is often done to increase reproductive success for cavity-nesting birds. If the artificial nest boxes are too close together, however, there may be unintended social consequences. Clumped nest boxes lead to an increased rate of egg dumping and conspecific brood parasitism, both of which reduce reproductive success. Hence, without attention to behavioral details, such well-intentioned habitat “improvement” programs may waste valuable funds and have detrimental effects on the population underrecovery. To develop more effective programs, conservation biologists must fully recognize the value of integrating proximate and ultimate behavioral studies. In recent years, this lack of integration has generated resistance toward increasing the diversity of the conservation behavior literature and has constrained the use of behavioral data by recovery teams. Based on our experiences and those of many of our colleagues, it is difficult to publish papers on conservation behavior, a problem not restricted to any particular journal. When manuscripts on conservation behavior are submitted to conservation journals, negative reviews may highlight a lack of immediate applicability or a lack of a direct link between behavioral responses and fitness (e.g., reproductive output, survival rates). Yet general questions about proximate behaviors that affect survival, mortality, or population size are all topics that are explicitly relevant to conservation biology. When conservation behavior manuscripts are submitted to behavior journals, they may be rejected because of an apparent lack of theoretical framework, or, if they are accepted, authors are asked to remove most references to conservation. However, conservation behavior itself can be theoretical. For example, predicting the behavioral mechanisms underlying the vulnerability of a species to human impacts and predicting how long antipredator behaviors persist following isolation from predators are behavioral considerations that are explicitly, theoretically motivated. A far greater threat to species survival than the difficulties of publishing conservation behavioral findings is the tendency of recovery teams to wait too long to integrate behavioral biologists into their efforts. Such oversights appear to be related to a lack of understanding of how behavioral studies are conducted. For instance, an exciting and promising line of conservation behavior research seeks to increase reintroduction success by evaluating the antipredator abilities of animals prior to release and then following their fates. If individuals with inferior antipredator behavior are preyed upon more frequently than those with superior abilities, then pre-release training may be used to prepare animals for release. For years, ethologists have used simple models, taxidermic mounts, and playback of sounds through speakers to study the perceptual and assessment abilities of a variety of species. Through the use of simple stimuli, these techniques allow one to learn about how animals assessrisk. Although managers must make tough decisions about what can be done with animals prior to release, they must think critically about how much they can learn from these studies to improve success rates. The recovery programs for black-footed ferrets (Mustela nigripes) and golden lion tamarins (Leontopithecus rosalia) provide evidence that fully integrating behavioral biologists into the recovery process can make a difference. In both cases, paying attention to the environment these species were reared in and providing pre-release behavioral enrichment was essential for ultimate success. In the long run, it may be more cost-effective to incorporate behavioral biologists at the outset of captive breeding and reintroduction programs rather than to wait until a “problem” emerges, animals die, and precious funds are spent. Conservation behavior will not provide the solutions to all conservation problems, but we conservation behaviorists need to show how useful a behavioral perspective can be. By understanding the type of questions conservation behavior can address, one can better evaluate how and when wildlife conservation could benefit from behavioral knowledge. Addressing both proximate and ultimate questions of conservation behavior is essential to improving our management decisions. Two research areas in particular will not only help bridge the gulf between conservationists and behaviorists but will also help research on conservation behavior to produce specific conservation outcomes. First, we must develop predictive models of behavior that are accessible to wildlife managers. Advances have been made in foraging theory and modeling habitat selection, wherein animal decisions have been modeled with increased sophistication. However, the sophistication that comes with deeper understanding may impede application by its complexity. Behavioral biologists should strive to make their models accessible to others by identifying specific behavioral mechanisms. These mechanisms should be the basis of bottom-up models that predict the behavior, movement, habitat use, and distribution of species of conservation concern. Second, we must develop an ultimate understanding of how and why species are vulnerable to human impacts. Study of conservation behavior is much more than simply documenting whether or not humans affect wildlife. The explosion in comparative biology and macroecology in the past decade offers a framework for future advances in predictive evolutionary models. Future studies should examine how variation in life history and natural history explains variation in proneness to extinction, tolerance to human disturbance, and tolerance to invasive species at local scales. Ignoring the diversity and methods of modern behavioral biology places conservation-dependent animals at peril. Although we are excited that some wildlife managers and conservation biologists appreciate the expertise offered by behavioral biologists, we believe that many still fail to appreciate the importance of proximate mechanisms. Some pigeonhole behavioral research as too species-specific and fail to recognize that behavioral biologists can produce generalizable and predictive models. With an increased appreciation of what conservation behaviorists have to offer, and a fundamental integration of them into recovery teams, we believe that future recovery efforts will be more successful and cost-effective, and that the exciting integrative field of conservation behavior will prosper.

Conservation Behavior Is Here to Stay

Objective: This study aims to determine the implementation of the Conservation-Based Learning (CBL) model and its effect on creative behaviour through conservation values obtained by students through learning. Theoretical Framework: The CBL model is built on the premise that addressing the negative impacts of biodiversity loss requires behaviour change. While behaviour must be built through knowledge that fosters values. A learning model that is able to build Conservation Values (CV) and Conservation Behaviour (CB) will have a significant role in conserving biodiversity as specified in the SDG's. Method: The research involved 127 secondary school students used SmartPLS and PLS-Graph version 3.0 to analyse the relationships and effects of two syntaxes in the CBL model: Value Clarification (VC) and Systematic Action Planning (SAP). These syntaxes were tested for their impact on developing students' Conservation Values CV and Conservation Behaviour CB. Result and Discussion: The findings reveal that all variables examined in the study, including CV, CB, VC, and SAP, have positive and significant relationships. The implementation of the CBL model successfully enhances students' understanding of biodiversity and conservation values while promoting actionable conservation behaviour. Research Implication: The application of CBL model in learning successfully builds students' values and creative conservation behaviour. This has important implications for efforts to conserve biodiversity through the younger generation as expected in the SDG's. Originality/Value: This research introduces a new approach to achieve the SDG’s in conserving biodiversity (SDG-14, SDG-15) through quality education (SDG's-4). The CBL model has the potential to build the conservation values and behaviours of future generations.

Engaging urban residents in greater proconservation behaviors is essential to mitigate the biodiversity crisis. To date, most behavior‐change campaigns have been based on a one‐size‐fits‐all “think‐care‐act” approach resulting in insufficient, sometimes counterproductive, conservation gains. In our study, we assess the “think‐care‐act” paradigm and also consider a range of cobenefits that may motivate different segments of urban populations to take greater conservation action for reasons other than biodiversity gains. We surveyed a representative sample of Auckland, New Zealand (n= 2,124) and four clusters emerged through clustering analysis. The first segment (Environmentally Active; 32%), exhibited the “think‐care‐act” paradigm. The second segment (Well Informed; 28%), was highly knowledgeable and concerned about conservation problems but exhibited lower conservation behaviors. The third segment (Active Outdoors; 19%) was actively engaged in outdoor activities, but exhibited low conservation knowledge, concern, and behaviors. The fourth segment (Socially Motivated; 21%), demonstrated high levels of conservation behaviors but lower knowledge and concern about conservation issues. We discuss potential ways to engage with each segment based on cobenefits and the need to move away from the traditional “think‐care‐act” paradigm and instead work with existing values systems and foster greater conservation behavior based on existing cobenefits.

Behavioural biology: an effective and relevant conservation tool

1. INTRODUCTION Wetlands are unique ecosystems that often appear on the sidelines of aquatic or terrestrial systems. They are among the most productive ecosystems on earth, the loss of which can lead to disastrous effects on the wild life and biodiversity. Scientists believe that the destruction of wetlands results in the extinction of native species and their specific habitat. As the livelihood of most poor people in developing countries depends on agriculture, the key solution to solve the problem is enabling and improving the dynamicity of rural communities. As wetlands host a variety of plant and animal species, they play a crucial role in providing for the rural households, and their conservation is the most vital factor in defying human and natural hazards. The main purpose of this study is to predict the important factors affecting the conservation behavior of rural users of Shadegan Wetland. 2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Shadegan Wetland in Khuzestan province, covering about 537,731 hectares, is the largest in Iran and one of the 1201 recognized wetlands under Ramsar Convention. It is one of the 18 international wetlands registered on UNESCO’s Natural Heritage List. Unfortunately Shadegan Wetland is endangered by overexploitation and natural hazards. Natural factors, such as drought phenomenon, as well as irresponsible nearby human activities, such as changing land use, disposing of agricultural, industrial and domestic waste water into the wetland, building non-professionally designed dams, among others have accelerated its drying and disappearance. As such, the health of people and the rural lifestyle is vulnerable and threatened, and it can result in irrevocable consequences. Certainly, one of the solutions to protect the wetland and the rural operators’ sustainable livelihoods is by addressing their conservation behavior. Therefore, combining forces of scientific research with experience and taking culture, education, communication and social sciences, as well as the role of people into consideration is of highest priority. Due to the critical conditions of Shadegan Wetland, personal-professional characteristics are influencing factors which can play an important role in the wetland conservation and protecting its rural operators’ sustainable livelihoods. 3. METHODOLOGY This descriptive study aimed at providing practical implications. SPSS version 20 was employed for the statistical analysis of the data. The research population consisted of all households living in the central and rural district Khnafereh in Shadegan, Khuzestan. They consisted of eight villages with 2319 household operators (N=2319). Random-quota sampling technique was used and by drawing on the table of Krejcie and Morgan (1970), 331 households were selected who eventually returned 124 completed questionnaires (n=124). In terms of conservation behavior, the participants were asked a series of five-point Likert scale questions. 4. DISCUSSION Issues such as global warming, urban air pollution, water shortages, environment natural habitat destruction, and loss of biodiversity are among the various examples of environmental problems which threaten sustainability. The international Shadegan Wetland located in Khuzestan Province, as the largest wetland in Iran on the coast of Persian Gulf countries, for various reasons related to natural and human factors, affected by drought phenomenon is on the verge of extinction. The nearby rural operates behave in two ways: responsibly and irresponsibly. In order to reduce the vulnerability of the livelihood of the rural operators, investigation of their responsible behavior which can result in their conservation behavior is imperative. In the study of human behavior by sociologists, the theory of reasoned action and planned behavior is crucial. The purpose of such models are understanding the predictive variables of behavior in a way that they are recognized correctly. In the present study, neural network analysis was used to test the significance of personal-professional variables influencing conservation behavior among rural operators of Shadegan Wetland. 5. CONCLUSION The results of the neural network analysis of variables including the distance of the location to the Jahad Department of Agriculture, the distance of the location to the nearest city and experience in agriculture revealed that these variables are the most significant factors in the equation. The findings indicate that the farther the location of the rural operators is to the nearest Jahad Department of Agriculture, the more responsible behavior in terms of the extension and education for improving the conservation behavior to control human and natural hazards among the rural operators is observed. In other words, the farther the location of the rural operators is to the nearest Jahad Department of Agriculture, the more irresponsibility in terms of conservation behavior to control human and natural hazards (response and reaction) by the rural operators is observed. In the end, effective communication and interaction between state-run organizations and rural operators for the purpose of extension and education of conservation behavior can reduce the vulnerability of Shadegan Wetland caused by natural and human hazard.

The biodiversity crisis demands greater engagement in pro‐nature conservation behaviours. Research has examined factors which account for general pro‐environmental behaviour; that is, behaviour geared to minimizing one's impact on the environment. Yet, a dearth of research exists examining factors that account for pro‐nature conservation behaviour specifically—behaviour that directly and actively supports conservation of biodiversity. This study is the first of its kind to use a validated scale of pro‐nature conservation behaviour. Using online data from a United Kingdom population survey of 1,298 adults (16+ years), we examined factors (composed of nine variable‐blocks of items) that accounted for pro‐nature conservation behaviour. These were: individual characteristics (demographics, nature connectedness), nature experiences (time spent in nature, engaging with nature through simple activities, indirect engagement with nature), knowledge and attitudes (knowledge/study of nature, valuing and concern for nature) and pro‐environmental behaviour. Together, these explained 70% of the variation in people's actions for nature. Importantly, in a linear regression examining the relative importance of these variables to the prediction of pro‐nature conservation behaviour, time in nature did not emerge as significant. Engaging in simple nature activities (which is related to nature connectedness) emerged as the largest significant contributor to pro‐nature conservation behaviour. Commonality analysis revealed that variables worked together, with nature connectedness and engagement in simple activities being involved in the largest portion of explained variance. Overall, findings from the current study reinforce the critical role that having a close relationship with nature through simple everyday engagement plays in pro‐nature conservation behaviour. Policy recommendations are made. A free Plain Language Summary can be found within the Supporting Information of this article.

The current biodiversity crisis, extinction of experience of nature and rising concern about people's well‐being and mental health require us to understand the benefits of activities supporting people's engagement with nature. We ran a 1‐week randomised controlled experiment to test the impact of nature‐focussed activities on people's connectedness to nature and well‐being. This project, called ‘Nature Up Close and Personal: A Wellbeing Experiment’ recruited 500 people who completed the pre‐ and post‐participation surveys which included seven psychometric outcome measures. People were randomly assigned to one of six groups. Those in non‐control groups were asked to take part in one 10‐min activity five times over 8 days; this could be done in any place with nature near to them. The activities were as follows: two different citizen science activities, a nature‐noticing activity (asking people to note three good things in nature: 3GTiN) or a combination of citizen science and 3GTiN. Citizen science, 3GTiN and the combination of the two had significant positive effects on nature connectedness, happiness, sense of worthwhile life and satisfaction with life. 3GTiN (alone and in combination with citizen science) had significant positive effects on pro‐nature conservation behaviours. All activities engaged the pathways to nature connectedness. Compared to 3GTiN, people doing citizen science scored lower at engaging with nature through their senses, and feeling calm or joyful, but higher for feeling that they made a difference. The combined activity engaged the pathways to nature connectedness at least as strongly as the highest scoring of citizen science or 3GTiN individually. This shows the potential to intentionally design citizen science to enhance the pathways to nature connectedness. Nature‐based citizen science is more than just a way to gather environmental data: it benefits well‐being and nature connectedness of participants, and (when in combination with noticing nature activities) pro‐nature conservation behaviours. It adds to the range of activities already proven to enhanced human–nature interactions and nature connectedness. Public policy needs to develop a ‘one health’ approach to people's engagement with nature, supporting communities to both notice and monitor everyday biodiversity, recognising that human and nature's well‐being is interdependent. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.

Conservation and Animal Behavior

Our planet is changing at a startling pace. The rate of species extinction is alarmingly high (Barnosky et al. 2011) and unique ecosystems such as coral reefs and tropical forests are rapidly diminishing and disappearing. It is very clear that the only way to prevent, or at least slow down, this mass extinction, is by direct action. The science of conservation biology stands before the ongoing environmental crisis, offering some hope that through the implementation of our accumulating interdisciplinary scientific knowledge we can prevent, and even reverse, the decline of the diversity of life on Earth.

Using insights from animal behaviour and behavioural ecology to inform marine conservation initiatives

Conservation behavior assists the investigation of species endangerment associated with managing animals impacted by anthropogenic activities. It employs a theoretical framework that examines the mechanisms, development, function, and phylogeny of behavior variation in order to develop practical tools for preventing biodiversity loss and extinction. Developed from a symposium held at the International Congress on Conservation Biology in 2011, this is the first book to offer an in-depth, logical framework that identifies three vital areas for understanding conservation behavior: anthropogenic threats to wildlife, conservation and management protocols, and indicators of anthropogenic threats. Bridging the gap between behavioral ecology and conservation biology, this volume ascertains key links between the fields, explores the theoretical foundations of these linkages, and connects them to practical wildlife management tools and concise applicable advice. Adopting a clear and structured approach throughout, this book is a vital resource for graduate students, academic researchers, and wildlife managers.

Chapter 7 - How an Understanding of Lumholtz’s Tree Kangaroo Behavioral Ecology Can Assist Conservation

Previous articleNext article FreeIndex to Titles and Authors/Editors of Books Reviewed Volume 92 (2017)PDFPDF PLUSFull Text Add to favoritesDownload CitationTrack CitationsPermissionsReprints Share onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditEmailQR Code SectionsMoreEntries are by title and author/editor; lead reviews are so designated.Activist Biology: The National Museum, Politics, and Nation Building in Brazil, by R. H. Durate, transl. by D. G. Whitty, 302Adaptation in Metapopulations: How Interaction Changes Evolution, by M. J. Wade, 186Adaptive Behavior and Learning, by J. E. R. Staddon, 2nd ed., 192Addressing Concerns about Extinction and Biodiversity by Moving beyond Biology, by J. V. Yule, lead review of Imagining Extinction: The Cultural Meanings of Endangered Species, by U. K. Heise, 445Adolescence: A Very Short Introduction, by P. K. Smith, 489Adovasio J. M., and D. Pedler, Strangers in a New Land: What Archaeology Reveals about the First Americans, 299Ageing: A Very Short Introduction, by N. A. Pachana, 489Albuquerque U. P., et al. (eds.), Evolutionary Ethnobiology, 187Alexander D. E., On the Wing: Insects, Pterosaurs, Birds, Bats and the Evolution of Animal Flight, 190Algebraic and Discrete Mathematical Methods for Modern Biology, ed. by R. S. Robeva, 86Allmon W. D., and M. M. Yacobucci (eds.), Species and Speciation in the Fossil Record, 461Amphibians of Costa Rica: A Field Guide, by T. Leenders, 487Andrews B., et al. (eds.), Budding Yeast: A Laboratory Manual, 336Andrews P., An Ape’s View of Human Evolution, 469Animal Athletes: An Ecological and Evolutionary Approach, by D. J. Irschick and T. E. Higham, 99Animal Physiology, by R. W. Hill et al., 4th ed., 330Animal Signaling and Function: An Integrative Approach, ed. by D. J. Irschick et al., 98Animal Vigilance: Monitoring Predators and Competitors, by G. Beauchamp, 100Ape’s View of Human Evolution, by P. Andrews, 469Approaches to Plant Evolutionary Ecology, by G. P. Cheplick, 339Aquiloni L., and E. Tricarico (eds.), Social Recognition in Invertebrates: The Knowns and the Unknowns, 326Arc of Life: Evolution and Health Across the Life Course, ed. by G. Jasienska et al., 320Arresting Contagion: Science, Policy, and Conflicts Over Animal Disease Control, by A. L. Olmstead and P. W. Rhode, 456Asian Pitvipers: Breeding Experience & Wildlife, by D. Visser, 112Austral Ark: The State of Wildlife in Australia and New Zealand, ed. by A. Stow et al., 315Australian Longhorn Beetles (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae), by A. Ślipiński and H. E. Escalona, Vol. 2 (Subfamily Cerambycinae), 208Australian Wildlife after Dark, by M. Robinson and B. Thomson, 345Ayala F. J., Evolution, Explanation, Ethics, and Aesthetics: Towards a Philosophy of Biology, 172Baby Gorilla: Photographic and Descriptive Atlas of Skeleton, Muscles and Internal Organs: Including CT Scans and Comparison with Adult Gorillas, Humans and Other Primates, by R. Diogo et al., 199Backcasts: A Global History of Fly Fishing and Conservation, ed. by S. Snyder et al., 458Bacterial Spore: From Molecules to Systems, ed. by A. Driks and P. Eichenberger, 337Baggott J., Origins: The Scientific Story of Creation, 85Barash D. P., Out of Eden: The Surprising Consequences of Polygamy, 322Barker G., Beyond Biofatalism: Human Nature for an Evolving World, 192Barrett S. C. H., et al. (eds.), Invasion Genetics: The Baker and Stebbins Legacy, 334Basics in Human Evolution, ed. by M. P. Muehlenbein, 95Bats of Somalia and Neighbouring Areas, by B. Lanza et al., 112Bauerfeind R., et al., Zoonoses: Infectious Diseases Transmissible between Animals and Humans, 4th ed., 346Baum D. A., Does the Future of Systematics Really Rest on the Legacy of One Mid-20th-Century German Entomologist?, lead review of The Future of Phylogenetic Systematics: The Legacy of Willi Hennig, ed. by D. Williams et al., 450Baumard N., The Origins of Fairness: How Evolution Explains Our Moral Nature, transl. by P. Reeve, 81Bayne K., and P. V. Turner (eds.), Laboratory Animal Welfare, 80Beastly Morality: Animals as Ethical Agents, ed. by J. K. Crane, 79Beauchamp G., Animal Vigilance: Monitoring Predators and Competitors, 100Bees in Your Backyard: A Guide to North America’s Bees, by J. S. Wilson and O. M. Carril, 206Behavioral Ecology of the Eastern Red-backed Salamander: 50 Years of Research, by R. G. Jaeger et al., 212Being-in-Creation: Human Responsibility in an Endangered World, ed. by B. Treanor et al., 173Benton R. C., et al., The White River Badlands: Geology and Paleontology, 178Berger-Tal O., and D. Saltz (eds.), Conservation Behavior: Applying Behavioral Ecology to Wildlife Conservation and Management, 325Berta A. (ed.), Whales, Dolphins & Porpoises: A Natural History and Species Guide, 113Berthoz A., The Vicarious Brain: Creator of Worlds, transl. by G. Weiss, 473Bertram J. E. A. (ed.), Understanding Mammalian Locomotion: Concepts and Applications, 199Beyond Biofatalism: Human Nature for an Evolving World, by G. Barker, 192Beyond Matter: Why Science Needs Metaphysics, by R. Trigg, 81Big Farms Make Big Flu: Dispatches on Infectious Disease, Agribusiness, and the Nature of Science, by R. Wallace, 345Biochar Application: Essential Soil Microbial Ecology, ed. by T. K. Ralebitso-Senior and C. H. Orr, 336Biochemical Evolution: The Pursuit of Perfection, by A. Cornish-Bowden, 2nd ed., 332Biocontrol of Lepidopteran Pests: Use of Soil Microbes and Their Metabolites, ed. by K. S. Sree and A. Varma, 208Biological Materials of Marine Origin: Vertebrates, by H. Ehrlich, 112Biology and Culture of Percid Fishes: Principles and Practices, ed. by P. Kestemont et al., 210Biology and Evolution of the Mexican Cavefish, ed. by A. C. Keene et al., 485Biology and Management of Invasive Quagga and Zebra Mussels in the Western United States, ed. by W. H. Wong and S. L. Gerstenberger, 209Bird Brain: An Exploration of Avian Intelligence, by N. Emery, 101Birds of Stone: Chinese Avian Fossils from the Age of Dinosaurs, by L. M. Chiappe and M. Qingjin, 462Birth of the Anthropocene, by J. Davies, 463Body Messages: The Quest for the Proteins of Cellular Communication, by G. Fantuzzi, 331Bone Rooms: From Scientific Racism to Human Prehistory in Museums, by S. J. Redman, 299Book of Frogs: A Life-Size Guide to Six Hundred Species from Around the World, by T. Halliday, 211Botstein D., Decoding the Language of Genetics, 107Bottjer D. J., Paleoecology: Past, Present, and Future, 460Boughner J. C., and C. Rolian (eds.), Developmental Approaches to Human Evolution, 200Braby M. F., The Complete Field Guide to Butterflies of Australia, 2nd ed., 341Bradshaw G. A., Carnivore Minds: Who These Fearsome Animals Really Are, 312Breisch A. R., The Snake and the Salamander: Reptiles and Amphibians from Maine to Virginia, 486Brief History of Creation: Science and the Search for the Origin of Life, by B. Mesler and H. J. Cleaves II, 84Broughton J. M., and S. D. Miller, Zooarchaeology and Field Ecology: A Photographic Atlas, 482Brusca R. C., et al., Invertebrates, 3rd ed., 482Budding Yeast: A Laboratory Manual, ed. by B. Andrews et al., 336Burkhardt F., and J. A. Secord (eds.), The Correspondence of Charles Darwin, Vol. 23 (1875), 83Burkhardt F., and J. A. Secord (eds.), The Correspondence of Charles Darwin, Vol. 24 (1876. Supplement to the Correspondence 1838-75), 300Butterflies of the Andes: Their Biodynamics and Diversification, by B. Purser, 207Cabaret of Plants: Forty Thousand Years of Plant Life and the Human Imagination, by R. Mabey, 481Cachel S., Fossil Primates, 176California Current: A Pacific Ecosystem and Its Fliers, Divers, and Swimmers, by S. Ulanski, 465Carnivore Minds: Who These Fearsome Animals Really Are, by G. A. Bradshaw, 312Caro T., Zebra Stripes, 488Carroll S. B., The Serengeti Rules: The Quest to Discover How Life Works and Why It Matters, 181Castellini M. A., and J.-A. Mellish (eds.), Marine Mammal Physiology: Requisites for Ocean Living, 474Cat Wars: The Devastating Consequences of a Cuddly Killer, by P. P. Marra and C. Santella, 487Cell: A Molecular Approach, by G. M. Cooper and R. E. Hausman, 7th ed., 202Cell Biology by the Numbers, by R. Milo and R. Phillips, 477Cell Signaling: Principles and Mechanisms, by W. Lim et al., 105Cell Signaling during Mammalian Early Embryo Development, ed. by H. J. Leese and D. R. Brison, 201Charles Darwin’s Life with Birds: His Complete Ornithology, by C. B. Frith, 171Charnley S., et al. (eds.), Stitching the West Back Together: Conservation of Working Landscapes, 186Cheats and Deceits: How Animals and Plants Exploit and Mislead, by M. Stevens, 471Cheplick G. P., Approaches to Plant Evolutionary Ecology, 339Chiappe L. M., and M. Qingjin, Birds of Stone: Chinese Avian Fossils from the Age of Dinosaurs, 462Choanoflagellates: Evolution, Biology and Ecology, by B. S. C. Leadbeater, 108Churchland P. S., and T. J. Sejnowski, The Computational Brain (25th Anniversary Edition), 328Circadian Physiology, by R. Refinetti, 3rd ed., 330Cléton F., et al., Tarantulas: Breeding Experience & Wildlife, 111Climate Change in Wildlands: Pioneering Approaches to Science and Management, ed. by A. J. Hansen et al., 466Climate Shock: The Economic Consequences of a Hotter Planet, by G. Wagner and M. L. Weitzman, 94Cobb M., Life’s Greatest Secret: The Race to Crack the Genetic Code, 106Coexistence: The Ecology and Evolution of Tropical Biodiversity, by J. Sapp, 314Comparative Bone Identification: Human Subadult to Nonhuman, by D. L. France, 330Complete Field Guide to Butterflies of Australia, by M. F. Braby, 2nd ed., 341Computational Brain (25th Anniversary Edition), by P. S. Churchland and T. J. Sejnowski, 328Conflicts in Conservation: Navigating Towards Solution, ed. by S. M. Redpath et al., 185Conservation Behavior: Applying Behavioral Ecology to Wildlife Conservation and Management, ed. by O. Berger-Tal and D. Saltz, 325Conservation Education and Outreach Techniques, by S. K. Jacobson et al., 2nd ed., 183Cooper G. M., and R. E. Hausman, The Cell: A Molecular Approach, 7th ed., 202Cooperative Breeding in Vertebrates: Studies of Ecology, Evolution, and Behavior, ed. by W. D. Koenig and J. L. Dickinson, 99Corballis M. C., The Wandering Mind: What the Brain Does When You’re Not Looking, 104Cornish-Bowden A., Biochemical Evolution: The Pursuit of Perfection, 2nd ed., 332Correspondence of Charles Darwin, ed. by F. Burkhardt and J. A. Secord, Vol. 23 (1875), 83Correspondence of Charles Darwin, ed. by F. Burkhardt and J. A. Secord, Vol. 24 (1876. Supplement to the Correspondence 1838-75), 300Costa Rican Ecosystems, ed. by M. Kappelle, 90Costly and Cute: Helpless Infants and Human Evolution, ed. by W. R. Trevathan and K. R. Rosenberg, 319Coyne J. A., Faith versus Fact: Why Science and Religion are Incompatible, lead review, 289Craig N. L., et al. (eds.), Mobile DNA III, 203Cramer D., The Narrow Edge: A Tiny Bird, An Ancient Crab and An Epic Journey, 472Crane J. K. (ed.), Beastly Morality: Animals as Ethical Agent, 79Croft D. A., Horned Armadillos and Rafting Monkeys: The Fascinating Fossil Mammals of South America, 307Crystallography: A Very Short Introduction, by A. M. Glazer, 489Cultural Lives of Whales and Dolphins, by H. Whitehead and L. Rendell, 215Cultural Phylogenetics: Concepts and Applications in Archaeology, ed. by L. M. Straffon, 470Curry H. 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The Great Barrier Reef (GBR) in Queensland, one of Australia’s most iconic tourism sites, is under threat as a result of climate change (GBRMPA, 2020). Listed as a World Heritage site in 1981, the Great Barrier Reef is the largest living structure in the world, covering an area of 348,000 square km and spanning 2,300 kilometres along the coast of Queensland. The value of the GBR economically, socio-culturally and environmentally is too high for the protection of the GBR not to be a priority for all. Humans, as major contributors to the current climate crisis, are ultimately also the solution.An increase in global and localised conservation campaigns over the past decades have focused on increasing public awareness about the impact human actions have on the environment, providing a range of pro-environmental actions that can be performed on an individual level. To date, however, there is little evidence conservation objectives are being met. Similar messages are also commonly included in nature-based tourism interpretation content. Research testing a variety of interpretive methods has resulted in some increase in the uptake of environmentally friendly behaviours however the increase is not sufficient. In order to maximise the protection of the GBR and to mitigate the impacts of climate change generally, a broader audience beyond those who visit environmentally sensitive sites must be engaged and persuaded to perform behaviours that will best contribute to the protection the GBR.This thesis, consisting of three interconnected studies, explores methods of capturing a wider audience and identifies the behaviours that these audiences can engage in to help protect not only the GBR but all environmentally sensitive areas.The first study, using an experimental design, explored the impact of a marine conservation documentary, combined with post-viewing support materials, on participants’ short- and long-term conservation behaviour. In addition to the control group, there were three treatment groups; two of which received different support strategies and the final treatment group received both strategies combined. Results revealed an increase in environmental knowledge, attitudes and behavioural intentions after viewing the documentary. Follow up questionnaires, ten weeks later, showed the treatment groups who received post-viewing support strategies acted upon their intentions. However, the control group who received no post-viewing support strategies and the treatment group who received both styles of post-viewing strategies failed to act upon intentions. This result prompted the need for inquiry into possible explanations of these findings prior to commencing the next study.Consequently, a review of messages distributed by marine conservation organisations and previous research evaluating the effectiveness of interpretive tourism experiences on the GBR was conducted. This revealed that there are multiple and varying messages being communicated to audiences. It was surmised that this may cause confusion among audiences, leading to a failure to act. Study two applied a Delphi technique to identify the most effective actions and behaviours individuals can perform to protect the GBR. The opinions of a panel of experts in the health, management and conservation of coral reefs were sought. The panel initially identified over 60 behaviours and actions which were reduced to 34 items and grouped into six categories: political actions, education, energy use, household/daily behaviours, philanthropic behaviours and transport. Of these six categories, political actions and education were ranked as most important by the expert panel.The final study embedded these behaviours into an experiment that compared the impacts of a real snorkel experience on the GBR with a virtual snorkel experience on the same site. Virtual reality is becoming increasingly popular due to its ability to replicate reality effectively, accordingly, this study used an experimental design to compare the impact of real and virtual snorkelling experiences on participants’ intentions to engage in the conservation behaviours identified in study two. Study three reveals that a nature-based tourism experience delivered via VR technology has the potential to be as effective as a real-life experience when seeking to influence conservation behaviours. The addition of interpretation to these experiences did not significantly affect the results.This research has a range of practical outcomes that can be applied locally in Australia but also globally. It will inform the future design and delivery of methods aiming to change visitors’ and non- visitors’ short- and long-term environmental behaviour and in doing so will help protect fragile environments.