A NOVEL ECO-FRIENDLLY PHENOLIC RESIN MODIFIED WITH UREA/SODIUM HYDROXIDE SOLUTION-TREATED SOYBEAN MEAL

Increased demand for wood adhesives, environmental concerns, and the uncertainty of continuing availability of petrochemicals have led to recent attention on protein‐based adhesives. This study was conducted to investigate the glue bond qualities of soy‐based phenolic adhesive resins for southern pine plywood. Two types of soy‐based resins were formulated and tested. The first was made by cross‐linking soy flour with phenol‐formaldehyde (pf) resins at neutral pH. The second type was obtained by cross‐linking soy flour hydrolyzates with pf resin under alkaline conditions. Plywood bonded with the neutral phenolic soy resins containing 70% soy flour and 30% 1.6 g/cm2 pf without the use of extenders and fillers compared favorably with the traditional southern pine pf glue mixes. Plywood bonded with alkaline phenolic soy resins, containing 40 or 50% 0.5 g/cm2 PF with the addition of extender (19% corn‐cob powder), provided better adhesive glue bond properties than traditional southern pine pf glue mixes. These results suggest that soy‐based phenolic adhesive resins have potential for the production of exterior southern pine plywood.

The present study was conducted to evaluate and compare the effects of various animal and plant protein sources on piglet's performance, digestibility of amino acids and gut morphology in weaned pigs until 28 days after weaning. The plant protein sources used were soybean meal (SBM), fermented soy protein (FSP), rice protein concentrate (RPC); and animal protein sources tested were, whey protein concentrate (WPC) and fishmeal (FM). Iso-proteinous (21%) diets were formulated and lysine (1.55%) content was similar in all the diets. The level of each protein source added was 6% by replacing SBM to the same extent from the control diet containing 15% SBM. The ADG was higher (p<0.05) in the groups fed animal proteins as compared with plant proteins at all the levels of measurement, except during 15-28 days. The highest ADG was noted in WPC and FM fed diets and lowest in SBM fed diet. The feed intake was higher in animal protein fed groups than plant proteins at all phases, but the feed:gain ratio was not affected by protein sources except during overall (0 to 14 day) measurement which was improved (p<0.05) in animal protein fed diets compared to plant protein sources. The digestibilities of gross energy, dry matter and crude protein were higher in animal protein fed groups than for plant protein fed sources. The apparent ileal digestibilities of essential amino acids like Leu, Thr, and Met were significantly (p<0.05) higher in animal proteins fed animals as compared with plant protein fed animals. But the apparent fecal digestibilities of essential amino acids like Arg and Ile were significantly higher (p<0.05) in plant protein diets than animal protein sources. The villous structure studied by scanning electron microscope were prominent, straight finger-like, although shortened and densely located in FM fed group as compared with others. The lactic acid bacteria and C. perfringens counts were higher in caecal contents of pigs fed plant proteins than the animal proteins. Overall, it could be concluded that animal protein sources in the present study showed better effects on growth performance, nutrient digestibility and gut morphology than plant protein sources. (Asian-Aust. J. Anim. Sci. 2005. Vol 18, No. 9 : 1285-1293)

To develop a lower-cost, excellent-performance, and environmentally friendly phenol-formaldehyde (PF) resin, soybean meal was used to modify PF resin, and soybean meal-phenol-formaldehyde (SMPF) resins were prepared. This reveals the effect of soybean meal on the structural, bonding, and curing properties of PF resin, which are very important for its applications in the wood industry. The resins' physicochemical properties and curing performance were investigated, showing that SMPF resins have higher curing temperatures than PF resin. The Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy results indicated that a cross-linking reaction occurred between the amino groups of soybean protein and the hydroxymethyl phenol. Moreover, with the addition of soybean meal, the viscosity of SMPF increased while the gel time decreased. It is worth mentioning that SMPF-2 resin has favorable viscosity, short gel time, low curing temperature (135.78 °C), and high water resistance and bonding strength (1.01 MPa). Finally, all the plywoods bonded with SMPF resins have good water resistance and bonding strength, which could meet the standard (GB/T 17657-2013, type I) for plywood. The optimized SMPF resins showed the potential for application to partially replace PF resin in the wood industry.

The present trials aimed to investigate the effects of replacing fish meal with plant proteins in diets for cod, using a regression design where fish meal constituted the control. The plant protein diets were formulated to meet the amino acid requirements according to NRC (1993) and contained corn gluten meal, soybean meal, a mixture of these, or a mixture of wheat gluten meal and soybean concentrate. The plant protein fraction constituted up to 440 g kg )1 of the extruded diet. Two feeding experiments were conducted, one at high (11 � C) and one at low (6.5 � C) temperature. High growth and feed utilization were obtained in all diet groups at both temperatures. However, only in Exp.1 (11 � C), growth and feed utilization were linearly reduced by increases in dietary soybean and corn gluten meal, while no such effect was detected in Exp.2 (6.5 � C). Reductions in protein retention were seen at both temperatures with use of all evaluated plant protein sources. Due to large amounts of plant protein ingredients in diet, differences in diet amino acid composition were seen. These were partly reflected in the muscle free amino acid pool. Dietary plant ingredients did not affect whole body, liver or muscle proximate compositions, or liver indices. In both experiments, blood parameters were within the range of earlier reported normal values and indicated, together with low mortality, good fish health status. The results show that there is high potential to use protein-rich plant ingredients in diets for Atlantic cod.

Melamine-urea-formaldehyde resin (MUF) and phenol–formaldehyde resin (PF) were prepared in the laboratory. Their curing behavior was analyzed by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). MUF resin was then cured at 110, 120, and 130 °C, while PF resin was cured at 135, 150, and 165 °C. The dry and wet bonding strength of plywood made by hot-pressing at different temperatures and heat-treatment at 200 and 250 °C were measured. DSC results show that the PF resin had a more obvious exothermic peak than the MUF resin during heat scanning. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy analysis shows that MUF and PF resins cured at higher temperature undergo more condensation reactions. Solvent dissolution test shows that PF resin cured at 135 °C has a weight retention similar to that of resins cured at 150 and 165 °C. However, using a temperature of 120 °C was better than 110 and 130 °C for MUF resin. Thermogravimetric analysis results show that PF resin had better heat resistance than MUF resin. The curing temperature did not influence the thermal degradation behavior of cured resins. However, increasing the curing temperature resulted in higher thermal stability. Heat treatment decreased the bonding strength of plywood. However, the bonding strength still met the requirement of the CNS 1349 standard when heat-treated at 200 °C.

This retrospective study used 226 dogs and 296 cats to evaluate whether protein absorption was influenced by species and within species and the influence increasing the percentage of total dietary protein as plant protein had on protein absorption. All protocols were reviewed and approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee, of Hill’s Pet Nutrition, Inc. A minimum of six dogs or cats were assigned to each study and the Association of American Feed Control Officials protocol for digestibility was used to evaluate protein digestibility. In short dogs and cats were fed for a minimum of 6 days for dogs and 10 days for cats. Following this there were 5 days of fecal collections. Dogs and cats varied from 1.1 to 12.8 years of age (dogs 6.4 ± 3.1 cats 7.3 ± 2.7). There were 459 dog studies and 427 cat studies completed. Dietary inclusion of animal based and plant protein was calculated and the change in protein digestibility evaluated for any response to the changing makeup. The percent of protein from plants was used as well as the percentage of food as fiber as the independent variables with protein digestibility the dependent variable. Increasing fiber was associated with decreasing protein digestibility in dry and canned cat food and dry dog food. This analysis showed that both dogs and cats were able to digest dietary plant protein with protein digestibility in dogs decreasing as plant protein increased from 92% to 90.8% at 50% plant protein in dry dog food and 89.1 to 83.7% in canned dog food. In cats, as plant protein increased, protein digestibility increased from 93.5 to 96.8% and in canned from 95.5% to 97.4% at 50% of the protein from plants. Both of these calculations are with foods with 0% fiber in order to exclude the negative effect of fiber. When individual plant high concentration protein sources (excluding the protein from whole grains) were evaluated (i.e., soybean meal, soybean protein isolate, corn gluten meal and rice protein concentrate) it was observed in the dog that there was no slope in response to increasing protein from these sources. The intercepts were 87.5, 91.1, 89.5 and 92.3 percent for soybean meal, soybean protein isolate corn gluten meal and rice protein concentrate, respectively. In the cat there was a significant positive effect on protein digestibility by increasing concentration of corn gluten meal (protein digestibility equals 92.9 + 0.093 * percent protein from corn gluten meal). There was no response to the other plant protein sources on digestibility with the intercepts of 93.7, 95.5, and 96.4 percent for soybean meal, soybean protein isolate, and rice protein concentrate. In summary, as the dietary protein shifted from striated muscle and other animal proteins to plant based proteins, there was a decline in the protein digestibility in the dog (1.15% at 50% protein in dry dog food) while in cats increasing dietary plant protein was associated with increasing protein digestibility (3.35% increase at 50% protein in dry cat food). Protein digestibility of food is similar if not enhanced when the plant protein sources are concentrated from soybeans (soybean isolate, soybean meal), corn (corn gluten meal) or rice (rice protein concentrate). Support or Funding Information Funding was from Hill’s Pet Nutrition, Inc.

The objectives of this study were (i) to synthesize bio-oil-based phenol–formaldehyde resin to be used for the wood products industry, and (ii) to investigate the effect of phenol substitution (molar-based vs. weight-based) with bio-oil on the properties of resulting PF resin. Bio-oil was produced by hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) process using sweetgum hardwood, and utilized as a bio-based phenolic feedstock as an alternative for petroleum-based phenol in the synthesis of PF resin. Phenol was substituted with bio-oil (both as weight- and molar-based). The resulting PF resin was noted as BPF-W and BPF-M when bio-oil was used to replace 50% of phenol in weight- and molar-based, respectively, and then compared with neat PF resin in terms of free formaldehyde content, gel time, pH of the resin, solid content, bond strength and thermal stability. Results showed that BPF-M resin had less free formaldehyde content and longer gel time than BPF-W resin. No significant difference in pH and solid content was observed between bio-oil-based PF resins. Moreover, molar-based substitution resulted in a resin with higher bonding strength than that of weight-based substitution, and both BPF-W and BPF-M showed higher bonding strength then neat PF resin. TGA analysis of the resin revealed that substitution of phenol with bio-oil lowered the thermal stability of bio-oil derived PF resins. However, molar-based substitution of phenol with bio-oil could enhance the thermal stability.

The aim of this study was to determine the impact of diets with different plant protein ingredients on proximate composition, tissue metabolites and tissue fatty acid composition, as well as hepatic and intestinal histological modifications in Senegalese sole (Solea senegalensis). Fish (21.5 ± 2.8 g body weight) were fed six isonitrogenous and isoenergetic diets during 11 weeks. A control diet containing fish meal as the main protein source was compared with five experimental diets replacing 30% fish meal protein by different plant protein sources: soybean meal (SBM), soybean protein concentrate (SPC), soybean protein isolate (SPI), wheat gluten meal (WGM) or pea protein concentrate (PPC). The inclusion of different plant protein did not significantly affect growth and proximate composition of fish. The hepatosomatic index was not significantly different to the control group; however, utilization of WGM significantly increased hepatocyte size. Plasma protein values and muscle triglycerides were influenced by the inclusion of SBM and WGM in the diets respectively. Feeding fish on SBM, WGM and PPC diets significantly enhanced n-6 fatty acid levels in muscle, particularly linoleic acid. None of the plant protein ingredient used in the diets decreased arachidonic, eicosapentaenoic as well as docosahexaenoic acid values in liver and muscle. Overall, histological studies did not reveal the existence of any intestinal alterations induced by the inclusion of different plant proteins. Despite moderate changes produced by SBM, SPC and WGM, inclusion of dietary plant protein ingredients has no major impact on growth, tissue and blood biochemistry, fatty acid profile and gut integrity of Senegalese sole juveniles.

This study was designed to determine the effect of complete substitution of fish meal (FM) by three plant protein sources including extruded soybean meal (SBM), extruded full-fat soybean (FFSB) and corn gluten meal (CGM) on growth and feed utilization of Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus and tilapia galilae Sarothrodon galilaeus. Four isonitrogenous of crude protein (ca. 28.0%) and isocaloric (ca. 19 MJ kg−1) experimental diets were formulated. The control diet (diet 1) was prepared with FM as the main protein sources. Diets 2–4, each FM control diet, were completely substituted with SBM (diet 2), FFSB (diet 3) and CGM (diet 4). l-lysine and dl-methionine were added to plant protein diets to cover the nutritional requirements of tilapia. Each treatment was allocated to three net pens and fed for 17 weeks. Nile tilapia fed the control diet showed significantly higher (P≤0.05) values for final body weight (FBW), feed intake (FI), weight gain (WG) and specific growth rate (SGR), whereas fish fed the diet with CGM achieved the lowest values. Tilapia galilae fed SBM diet recorded the highest (P≤0.05) values for growth performance. Better feed conversion ratio (FCR) for both Oreochromis niloticus and Sarothrodon galilaeus was observed when fish were fed SBM diet, whereas the worse FCR was recorded for FFSB diet. Feed utilization parameters including protein productive value (PPV), fat retention (FR) and energy retention (ER) showed significant differences (P≤0.05) for both the species fed different dietary protein sources. The present results suggest that, for Nile tilapia, both SBM and FFSB supplemented with dl-methionine and l-lysine can completely replace dietary FM. Meanwhile, S. galilaeus fed SBM diet exhibited comparable growth and feed utilization with those fish fed a fish-meal-based diet.

Five different plant proteins such as soybean meal (SBM), groundnut oil cake (GNC), rapeseed meal (RSM), sunflower oil cake (SFC) and guar meal (GRM) were tested for proximate composition as well as physical and functional properties before and after fermentation using Aspergillus niger. Fermentation was carried out in a BOD incubator at 35°C for three days after inoculating with 5% fungal suspension. Results revealed that fermentation significantly (p&lt;0.05) increased the crude protein content and total ash by 12.5 and 10.5%, respectively, while other proximate indices, including crude fat, crude fiber and nitrogen-free extract reduced significantly. The fungal fermentation had no effect on the texture and colour of plant proteins, while fermented samples had slightly fermented odour along with their natural odour. The plant proteins such as SBM, GNC, RSM, SFC and GRM had bulk densities of 0.54, 0.62, 0.79, 0.60, and 0.71 g cm-3 and significantly (p&lt;0.05) increased by 27.1, 0.5, 0.4, 19.9 and 12.3%, respectively. Fermentation significantly (p&lt;0.05) reduced water holding capacity by 11.7% regardless of the ingredients, with the decrease being significantly (p&lt;0.05) greater in GNC (17.7%), RSM (16.4%) and SBM (13.4%). After fermentation, the protein solubility index reduced significantly (p&lt;0.05) from 77.12 to 73.59%, with SBM and RSM having a reduction of about 5.9 and 5.4%, respectively, while GNC and SFC had a reduction of 4%. The difference between fermented and unfermented GRM, on the other hand, was not significant. Results concluded that fermented ingredients could be potential protein sources rather than their counterparts based on their chemical composition and functional properties. Keywords: Aspergillus niger, Fermentation, Functional property, Physical property, Plant protein, Proximate composition

Lead considered as one of the most risk toxicity of environmental contamination. It causes an increment accumulation in food especially plant food. Also, soy flour is widely used, inexpensive and a highly nutritional source of protein. So, this investigation aimed to study the effect of soy flour (as plant protein source) enriched by spirulina against lead toxicity by using male and female rats. Results: Additional lead acetate in drink water caused a decreasing in hematological tests, blood Fe, Ca and Zn contents. While, spirulina improved status of hemoglobin level and blood Fe content. Whereas, the rats fed on soy flour groups resulted in a high shear force and bone Pb content compared with rats fed on combine with soy flour and Spirulina. Conclusions: Do not depend on plant protein only against lead exposure. Must be combine with animal protein specially milk and milk products. Lead considered as one of the most risk toxicity of environmental contamination. It causes an increment accumulation in food especially plant food. Also, soy flour is widely used, inexpensive and a highly nutritional source of protein. So, this investigation aimed to study the effect of soy flour (as plant protein source) enriched by spirulina against lead toxicity by using male and female rats. Results: Additional lead acetate in drink water caused a decreasing in hematological tests, blood Fe, Ca and Zn contents. While, spirulina improved status of hemoglobin level and blood Fe content. Whereas, the rats fed on soy flour groups resulted in a high shear force and bone Pb content compared with rats fed on combine with soy flour and Spirulina. Conclusions: Do not depend on plant protein only against lead exposure. Must be combine with animal protein specially milk and milk products.

A control diet (C) containing animal protein (mainly fish meal) was compared with 6 experimental diets containing different plant proteins (soybean meal, SM; rapeseed meal, RM; potato protein concentrate, PPC and a mix of the three vegetable protein sources, M). The plant protein replaced either 25 (1) or 50 (2)% of the animal protein with the exception of diet RM2 where the substitution rate was lowered to 35%, and in diet M where 55% of the total protein given was replaced in equal amounts by the three plant proteins. For the growth trial, which lasted 97 days, 528 European sea bass (initial live weight 107 ± 0,06g), distributed among 24 fibreglass tanks with three replicates per treatment, were used. The pelleted feed was distributed 5 times per day using an automatic dispenser. Energy, crude protein and crude fat digestibility values for fish meal and soybean meal were similar and not statistically different while the values for rapeseed meal and potato protein concentrate were significantly lower. Digestive utilization for NFE was higher in fish meal and decreased significantly in soybean meal, rapeseed meal and even more noticeably in potato protein concentrate. Diet digestibility values showed a similar trend with a clear worsening effect at the higher inclusion rates used. Diet M gave digestibility coefficients lower than those observed with diets C, SM1, SM2, RS1 and RS2 and higher than those of diets PPC1 and PPC2. Fish fed a diet in which 25% of the total protein was replaced by soybean had similar performances to those of the control group. On the other hand, sea bass fed diets SM2, RS1, RS2 and M had lower growth rates and worse feed utilization than those observed with the control. Finally, specific growth rates and food conversion efficiency in sea bass fed diets containing potato protein concentrate were poor because of the low palatability. These results show that soybean meal can substitute up to 25% of the total protein of the diet without any negative effect on sea bass performance.

Curing behavior of soy flour with phenol-formaldehyde and isocyanate resins

The basic nutrient requirements for channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, are well known, with anecdotal evidence suggesting that catfish fry grow faster and have better survival when fed an animal protein diet. However, the ability to grow channel catfish as small as 11 g on all plant diets and a lack of published data showing the superiority of fish or animal proteins compared to nutritionally equivalent plant proteins for catfish fry indicates that it may be possible to raise channel catfish fry on diets with only plant protein sources. Therefore, an experiment was conducted to compare the effects of 36 and 45% animal protein diets and 36 and 45% all plant protein diets on catfish fry growth and survival. Experimental diets were formulated to contain: 36% all plant protein (primarily from soybean meal); 36% animal and plant protein (≥45% of crude protein as fish meal); 45% all plant protein (primarily from soy protein concentrate and soybean meal); and 45% animal and plant protein (≥60% of crude protein as fish meal). The catfish were fed at a rate of 20% of body weight daily for 28 d using 24-h automated feeders. Mean ending weights and lengths of catfish fry were not significantly different (P > 0.05) for any treatment. Mean mortality was also not significantly different (P > 0.05) among diets. Regression analysis of growth rate and analysis of variance of final weights revealed that there was no significant difference in growth rate for any of the four diets. These results indicate that growth is not limited in channel catfish fry fed all plant protein diets, and that there is no apparent advantage to the inclusion of animal protein in diets for channel catfish fry.

Individual plant protein feedstuffs were incorporated into a diet containing fish meal and fed to rainbow trout to determine apparent and true phosphorus availability (APA and TPA, respectively). The plant protein feedstuffs evaluated were soybean, canola and peanut meals; each was incorporated at 200 g kg–1 of dry matter. The average initial weight of fish was 68 g and the water temperature was maintained at 15°C. Concentrations of macronutrients were constant in diets. Incorporation of plant protein feedstuffs significantly increased APA and TPA values. The APA values were 19.5% for fish meal and 39.5%, 40.2%, and 38.5% for the diets containing soybean meal, canola meal, and peanut meal, respectively. Similarly, the TPA values for the combination of fish meal and plant protein feedstuff were 43.4%, 42.1% and 40.6% for diets containing soybean, canola and peanut meals, respectively, which were significantly higher than values for fish meal (21.5%). Calculation of APA and TPA values for individual feedstuffs resulted in values for the plant protein ingredients of over 100%. We speculate that the increased APA and TPA values were the result of decreasing total dietary phosphorus concentrations or dilution of the calcium concentrations from bone in fish meal.