A Note on the Etymology of Latin Caesar

In the middle of the nineteenth century, in the Russian Empire, a new set of state-sponsored provincial newspapers began to include notices seeking fugitives and trying to identify arrested vagrants and found dead bodies. The notices were part of a larger effort to match individuals with specific legal identities based in social estate (soslovie). In principle, every individual subject of the Russian Empire belonged to a specific owner (in the case of serfs) or to a specific soslovie society (in the case of nearly everyone else). The notices were an effort to link people who had left their proper place to their “real” identity. To accomplish this, the notices also made use of a kind of simple biometrics or anthropometrics in order to move beyond an individual's telling of his or her own identity. By listing height, hair and eye color, the shape of nose, mouth, and chin, and other identifying features, the notices were intended to allow for more exact identification. This version of identification developed out of previous practices grounded in the documentary requirements of the tsarist state, and they were slightly ahead of their time in the context of nineteenth-century developments in the sphere of identification practices. They were also distinct from other kinds of anthropometric practices of classification developed at the same time or soon thereafter—where many sought to use physical measurements to classify people by race or by inclination to criminality, the Russian system had no such goals.

TECHNOLOGY AND CULTURE Book Reviews 159 featured prominently inJohn Foster’s empirical studies of Oldham. Gray’s linguistic perspective shares much with the approach of Gary Gerstle, who teased out shifts in the meaning of “Americanism” among French-Canadian textile workers in Woonsocket, Rhode Is­ land. Gray has written a tract for its time, different in emphasis from the Fabian and New Left classics that acquainted earlier generations with the Industrial Revolution. Still, one cannot help but marvel at the overall quality ofthe scholarship that he has synthesized and that historians in Britain continue to produce about this venerable topic. Thomas E. Leary Dr. Leary is a partner in Industrial Research Associates, a public history con­ sulting firm in Buffalo, New York. He was formerly curator of Slater Mill Historic Site in Pawtucket, Rhode Island. ThePolitics ofIndustrialization in Tsarist Russia: TheAssociation ofSouth­ ern Coal and Steel Producers, 1874-1914. By Susan P. McCaffray. DeKalb , Ill.: Northern Illinois University Press, 1966. Pp. xxii+299; illustrations, maps, tables, notes, bibliography, index. $35.00 (cloth). Susan McCaffray examines the role of the Russian technical elite in shaping industrialization in South Russia (modern-day Ukraine) in the latter part of the tsarist era. She focuses squarely on the engi­ neer-managers in the private coal and steel firms who deliberately sought to modernize Russia by creating industry that would yield capitalism with a Russian face. In carrying out this study, McCaffray offers a deep look into the role of the emerging native-born techni­ cal intelligentsia in shaping the industry in the Donets Basin and throws light on a hitherto understudied facet of Russian industrial history. The engineer-managers emerge as an ethnically diverse, lib­ eral-minded group who had faith in the power of education, ratio­ nality, and informed self-interest to transform Russia for the benefit ofall. The forum in which they expressed their views was the Associa­ tion of Southern Coal and Steel Producers. The scope of this study is impressive. While McCaffray’s main fo­ cus is on the engineers’ participation in industrializing South Russia, other important aspects of the picture also receive due attention. For example, McCaffray provides detailed information about the workers’ living and working conditions in the coal and steel enter­ prises, as well as the prominent place that the workers’ question held in the engineers’ worldview. She also examines thoroughly the work­ ing relationship between the coal industry and the tsarist bureau­ cracy, arriving at a generally positive assessment of industry-state re­ lations. In giving consideration to these areas, the author has 160 Book Reviews TECHNOLOGY AND CULTURE managed to craft a combination of social and institutional history that does justice to both. Although the subject matter is undoubtedly fresh, McCaffray’s study essentially supports a now well-established picture of tsarist so­ ciety as a fragmented entity divided along regional and sectoral lines. Nevertheless, the book does provide some novelties. First, the author points out that on the eve ofWorld War I some degree of consensus was emerging on the welfare question, and the southern engineers had come to accept a welfare-capitalist vision. Another important insight is the author’s reassessment of the role of foreign influence in South Russia. In general she minimizes the foreign factor and demonstrates forcefully that the foreigners’ goals and choices for industrialization in the Donets Basin were essentially in harmony with those of the native engineers. They all wanted to expand heavy industry and earn substantial profits. Thus, rather than taking South Russia in a wholly new direction, the foreign investment sped up a process that had already begun under native leadership. In other words, foreigners influenced Russian economic life only through the agency and administration of the native engineers. In making this last point, the author modifies slightly the conclusions reached by John McKay back in 1970. The book has many strong points. It is extremely well researched, and the author has drawn her sources from a variety ofarchival mate­ rials in the Russian State Historical Archive along with highly rele­ vant documents from the Belgian Ministry ofForeign Affairs. Besides these archival sources, the publications by the Association of South­ ern Coal and Steel Producers provide...

Ancient DNA (aDNA) research has become one of the most influential developments in archaeological science. It allows researchers to recover and analyze genetic material from long-deceased humans, animals, plants, and pathogens. The research results have been widely published in high-impact journals and frequently featured in the media, giving aDNA visibility that has led some to describe archaeogenetics as a “celebrity science”. This volume introduces the field of archaeogenetics through a Finnish lens, and combines research results from the Sugrige/Sumragen ancient genome project and the Vapriikki Museum Centre’s research and exhibition initiative at the ruined St. Michael’s church in Pälkäne and Vilusenharju cemetery in Tampere. The book brings ancient and historically more recent individuals close to a modern reader by presenting several case studies, through which archaeogenetics is framed as a genuinely interdisciplinary field drawing on archaeology, molecular biology, bioinformatics, history, and linguistics. The publication starts by examining the potential and limitations of aDNA analysis and highlights the methodological challenges such as DNA degradation, contamination risks, and the unpredictable nature of preservation. Sampling strategies and laboratory protocols are discussed in detail, as is the complexity of the interpretation of DNA data. The book also critically examines the broader societal implications of genetic research, including the increasing popularity of commercial ancestry tests and genetic genealogy. These contexts involve a risk of oversimplifying complex genealogical and population histories. Ethical issues are addressed throughout the volume, particularly the treatment of human remains and the responsibilities of researchers, and the findings are placed in a broader historical and archaeological interpretative framework. For example, the chapters discuss how linguistic, archaeological, and genetic histories may follow distinct and sometimes divergent paths. The chapters explore the genetic legacy of archaic humans, such as Neanderthals and Denisovans, the genetic dimensions of Finland’s settlement history, kinship structures, health conditions and personal characteristics of individuals. The latter include analyses of sex, eye and hair colour, and disease susceptibility, which are always approached with caution and respect towards the examined individual. In addition to human-centered studies, the volume highlights applications of aDNA in environmental and ecological research. Chapters on metagenomics, ancient plants, and the genetic histories of animals explore how molecular data can illuminate long-term ecological change, domestication processes, and human-environment interactions. Proteomic analysis is presented as a valuable complementary method, particularly in cases where DNA is poorly preserved, contributing further insights into past diets, health, and species identification. The final chapter on the prehistoric languages spoken in the area of modern Finland complements the volume by offering a linguistic perspective that enriches the genetic and archaeological narratives. The book shows how interdisciplinary archaeogenetic research can shed light on various aspects of human history, and contributes to a critically informed and ethically responsible approach to molecular archaeology by expanding scientific understanding while recognizing the importance of contextualization in the study of the lives and legacies of past populations.

commemorative roles in the past. The city names are presented in chronological order starting from ancient times to the 20th century. The ancient toponyms are related to the expansion of the Roman Empire, and the names of Roman emperors are used as a foundation for these toponyms. Such urbonyms created on the outskirts of the Roman Empire made reference to their new political allegiance and confirmed it. These naming practices therefore played an important role in the process of territorial expansion and the consolidation of political control. This naming model was also present in Byzantium, and became popular on the outskirts of medieval Ruthenia under the influence of the Byzantine Empire. The tradition of commemorating political rulers through toponyms stayed constant in the Eastern Slavic regions, and was continued by the Russian monarchy as well as the USSR. Such naming practices were initially used as a tool for the structural organisation of Kievan Rus’, and later to erase foreign names from these regions of Tsarist Russia. In Communist times, this tradition reaffirmed the new political reality through the use of surnames of political figures in toponyms. In the 20th century there was an increase in surnames featured in urbanonyms (the names of streets, squares, housing estates). This increase was meant to preserve the memory of remarkable individuals in society.

Siddha literature reveals the scientific traditions that form the foundation of Tamil cultural life. In particular, Siddha medical texts stand as a significant repository of both medical and pharmaceutical knowledge. The medical and pharmaceutical terms used in these works do not merely denote treatments and practices; they also highlight aspects of Tamil etymology, morphology, and semantic evolution from a linguistic perspective. Firstly, Siddha medical terms are largely derived from natural sources. For instance, plant, mineral, metal, and animal-based substances contributed to the formation of drug-related vocabulary, reflecting both the nature of the materials and their medicinal properties. Secondly, the construction of these terms often employed literary devices such as metaphors, symbolic representations, and descriptive attributes. Certain pharmaceutical terms indicate the nature of the disease and the method of treatment, thereby revealing the interrelationship between medicine and linguistics. Thirdly, the medical vocabulary found in Siddha texts embodies the lifestyle of the ancient Tamil society. Dietary practices, environmental conditions, and lived experiences of the time are all mirrored in the evolution of pharmaceutical terminology. Thus, these terms not only present the medical knowledge of the Tamils but also reflect their cultural, artistic, and linguistic identity. Therefore, the study of the origin and development of medical and pharmaceutical terms in Siddha literature holds significance for linguistic research. It also fosters interdisciplinary exploration between Tamil literature, medicine, and linguistics.

This article explores the concept of word knowledge with a focus on polysemy, analyzing multiple word meanings from a linguistic perspective. Using the frameworks of Zimmerman (2009) and Schmitt (2000), it examines lexical-semantic characteristics in English and Uzbek. The study highlights how English relies on metaphorical and idiomatic extensions, whereas Uzbek employs morphological modifications to distinguish meanings. Cognitive and typological differences in polysemy processing between the two languages are also discussed. The research emphasizes the role of linguistic structure in shaping word meanings and semantic evolution. Findings contribute to a broader understanding of lexical ambiguity and its implications for linguistic theory.

Reviewed by: Deification in Russian Religious Thought: Between the Revolutions, 1905–1917 by Ruth Coates Paul Gavrilyuk Ruth Coates, Deification in Russian Religious Thought: Between the Revolutions, 1905–1917. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2019. Studies of deification have gone viral. Since non-Orthodox scholars stopped practicing intellectual distancing from deification long ago, there is a growing epidemic of monographs looking for the traces of the theme in every possible direction: scripture, the Greek and Latin Church Fathers, medieval theologians, those who labored on every side of the Reformation and our side of modernity. Surprisingly, however, a complete story of the doctrine of deification’s coming to its own in modern Orthodox theology remains to be written. Ruth Coates’s book fills an important lacuna in this larger story. The subtitle of the book—“Between the Revolutions, 1905– 1917”—establishes the Sitz im Leben and provides the temporal limits of the study. The “revolutionary situation” in Russia led to a considerable amount of social turbulence, which provided fertile soil for spiritual and religious awakening: the Russian religious renaissance. The narrow temporal window chosen by Coates allows for a fine-textured, focused synchronic assessment of the four main sources or “case studies”: Tsar and Revolution (1907), a collection of essays by Dmitry Merezhkovsky, his wife Zinaida Gip-pius, and their friend, Dmitry Filosofov (the three are conventionally shortened to “the Merezhkovskys”); The Meaning of Creativity (1916) by Nikolai Berdyaev; The Philosophy of Economy (1912) by Sergei Bulgakov; and The Pillar and Ground of the Truth (1914) by Pavel Florensky. The “case study” approach illustrates the intellectual daring of the Russian religious renaissance by considering the implications of deification not only for theology (Florensky), but also for political theory (the Merezhkovskys), economics (Bulgakov), and personalist philosophy (Berdyaev). The book also includes two background chapters on deification in the Greek Church Fathers and in the nineteenth-century Russian religious thinkers. The ordering of the main four chapters is not chronological, since Berdyaev’s book was written and published after the rest of the works considered. Rather, this book’s argument seems to move from the works the least indebted to the patristic understanding of deification (the Merezhkovskys) to the works that show a more robust engagement of the Church Fathers (Florensky). To put this differently, the Merezhkovskys focused on the wrong ways to go about deification (idolatrous sacralization of the person and office of the Russian Tsar), whereas Florensky described the ecclesial way of going about deification (virginity and asceticism). For the Merezhkovskys the abrogation of the office of the patriarch by Peter I was more than a secularizing move based on the Protestant models; it was, at least in the minds of many Russian Orthodox believers, a blasphemous usurpation of the sacred authority of the Church by the Tsar, who accepted quasi-divine honors reminiscent of the pagan Roman Emperors. The [End Page 223] Merezhkovskys proposed an anarchist solution to the problem of the idolatrous and demonic divinization of absolute monarchy. In fleshing out this solution, they creatively drew on the imagination of Russian sectarian groups, which held that all their religious adherents, with due divine assistance, could become Christ. The Merezhkovskys located this form of deification in the sanctification of the flesh and criticized “historical Christianity” and “institutional Church” for unduly negative attitudes towards the body. Coates notes sectarian tendencies in the “new religious consciousness” espoused by the Mere-zhkovskys and points out that their critique of the Church was not grounded in a careful study of the Orthodox tradition. Berdyaev wrote The Meaning of Creativity at the time when he parted with the Merezhkovsky circle and the “new religious consciousness,” but as Coates astutely observes, much of his former sensibility, especially the suspicion towards the “institutional Church,” still remains in this book. Berdyaev compares a genius and a saint (in his example, Pushkin and St. Seraphim of Sarov) and claims that the creative act of a genius is as valuable in the eyes of God as the ascetic struggle of the saint. For Berdyaev, the creative act has a redemptive value inasmuch as it aligns human agents with the creative power of God and with divine freedom. As Coates carefully...

This article highlights the importance of understanding the dynamic nature of color semantics in relation to language, culture, and perception. Incorporating fields such as linguistics, psychology, anthropology, and art history, the interdisciplinary approach emphasizes a comprehensive study of the subject in a variety of contexts. It also notes the importance of acknowledging different linguistic and cultural perspectives while clarifying the complex interplay between language and perception in the evolution of color semantics. The article provides a deep understanding of the complexities of intercultural communication and the role of color semantics in the formation of social relations of language. This article provides general conclusions on the stages of the gradual development of the spiritual properties of colors, and aims to deeply explain the importance of semantic values related to the pragmatic laws of the concept of colors in a comprehensive way, including all social and cultural pragmatic differences.

This study focuses on the historical and cultural significance of the Chinese character “爵” (jue), reflecting the culture of the ancient Bronze Age, and examines its semantic evolution and characteristics from a cognitive linguistic perspective. In addition, it compares and contrasts this with its use in Korean hanja (Chinese characters used in the Korean language). The research highlights that in ancient China, “爵” was initially used to denote a ceremonial wine vessel, symbolizing authority and social status, and was closely associated with rites and nobility. Over time, the meanings of “爵” expanded to include titles of nobility and official positions. Furthermore, the study explores the impact of Chinese culture and language on Korea, showing how “爵” and its related concepts were adopted and adapted within the Korean language and culture, maintaining some of its original meanings while also developing unique interpretations. It suggests that many Korean hanja words share identical meanings with their Chinese counterparts, but some have evolved distinctively, especially in the realm of religion, highlighting the interplay and diversity of cultural and linguistic influences between China and Korea.

The prototype theory, experience view and metaphor theory of cognitive linguistics is the basic theory, from the perspective of cognitive linguistics to analyze the Chinese semantic evolution phenomenon is a new research direction of modern lexical semantics. From the perspective of semantics, in all relevant meanings, one of them plays a role like the center or core meanings, and thus become the prototype of other meanings; other meanings are extended on the basis of it, thus forming a radiation category of meaning. Humans’ experience plays an important role in the process of language use. Metaphor is the basic type of cognitive model, and it is the basic feature of thinking.

Introduction. Capiton I. Kostenkov was the first researcher of Tsarist Russia to have explored legal regulations dealing with land rights of Kalmyks in Kalmyk Steppe of Astrakhan Governorate. The article reviews sources mentioned in Chapter Four (‘About Land Rights of Kalmyks in Astrakhan Governorate’) of his work titled ‘Kalmyk Nomads of Astrakhan Governorate: Historical and Statistical Accounts’ (St. Petersburg, 1870). Goals. The paper aims at analyzing the mentioned chapter as a work examining land rights regulations for Kalmyks in Astrakhan Governorate prior to the 1860s. Results. The article outlines most essential provisions of the chapter and some related comments, determines key messages, lists the regulatory enactments included therein, analyzes C. Kostenkov’s viewpoints — both of a scholar and a government official — on the issues under consideration. Conclusions. The chapter contains virtually all documents contained in the Complete Collection of Laws of the Russian Empire and dealing with the pre-1860s land rights of Kalmyks in Astrakhan Governorate. It is noteworthy the former ignores the Regulations of 1825 and Statute of 1834 about the Kalmyk People’s Administration Office, which may result from those pay little attention to land issues. C. Kostenkov’s work shows a semantic evolution of the concept ‘ethnos-inhabited area’, territorial borders — towards lands rights proper. That could be explained by that the Kalmyk Khanate had tended to lose its limited sovereignty, and after the exodus of 1771 the remaining Kalmyks were being increasingly integrated into Russia’s administrative system. So, the issues of land use and tenure shifted from public (a territory) to private law (land as an economic and natural resource). The attitudes and opinions about Kalmyk history and social structure described are characteristic not only of C. Kostenkov as such but also of Russian authorities at large, e.g., the to be initiated sedentarization and economic development of Kalmyk Steppe.

Idiomatic phrases are an important part of Chinese vocabulary, with characteristics of being vivid, popular, and interesting. It often uses words related to daily life to form words, such as plants. This article takes Chinese plant idioms as the research object, and collects 329 pieces of corpus. From the perspective of cognitive linguistics, we explores the activation modes of Chinese plant idioms. According to the number of activations of Chinese plant idioms, it is divided into two categories: single activation and superimposed activation. The number of superimposed activations is more than that of single activation, which we believe is related to the principle of semantic evolution. From the perspective of activation modes, they are divided into similarity activation and "whole-part" associative activation, among which plant idioms involving similarity activation account for the vast majority. We hold that similarity plays a greater role in activation.