A New Species of Small Cat from the Late Quaternary of Southeastern United States

Synopsis The new genus and species Maddenia lapidaria from pre‐Deseadan (Oligocene) deposits at the southern cliff of Lake Colhue Huapí (Chubut Province, Argentina) is described. This small Oligocene astrapothere represents an adaptive type that is distinct from the usual one proposed for post‐Casamayoran (Eocene) forms. Because of its small body size and dental characters, preliminarily interpreted as primitive, this genus was originally considered to be a member of the Albertogaudryinae surviving into the Oligocene and coexisting with more derived species. However, a phylogenetic analysis based on dental and mandibular characters indicates that Maddenia lapidaria is, rather, the sister group of the giant Deseadan and later astrapotheriids by sharing with them a well developed upper molar crista and crochet, P4 lingual valley, p2 absent and superficial premolar and molar hypoflexid. Maddenia lapidaria has highly molarised upper premolars, representing the top‐most expression of the evolutionary trend of increasing premolar complexity in the Astrapotheria. Asubsequent evolutionary turnover resulted in a reduction of the size and number of premolars and secondary occlusal simplification, coinciding with an abrupt increase in hypsodonty and body size that characterise the more advanced astrapotheriids. This interpretation challenges the progressive acquisition of astrapotheriid characters traditionally accepted for the group. The moderately deep premolar and molar hypoflexid seen in Maddenia lapidaria is interpreted as the ancestral condition for the younger astrapotheres, which, on the one hand, would have evolved into the complete reduction of this structure in the Uruguaytheriinae and, on the other hand, the development of a deep labial vertical cleft in the Astrapotheriinae (Astrapotherium and Astrapothericulus).

Schildia Aldrich, 1923, a distinctive and rarely collected genus of Leptogastrinae (Diptera: Asilidae), is revised. Ten species are recognized, of which four are new to science. The nine extant species are Afrotropical, Neotropical and Oriental in distribution. The extant Neotropical species are Schildia alphus Martin, 1975, Schildia caliginosa sp.n. (Ecuador and Venezuela), Schildia fragilis (Carrera, 1944), Schildia guatemalae Martin, 1975, Schildia gracillima (Walker, 1855), Schildia jamaicensis Farr, 1963, and Schildia microthorax Aldrich, 1923. The only extant Afrotropical species, Schildia adina sp.n., is described from extant and subfossilized specimens (Malagasy copal) from south-western Madagascar. The extant Oriental species, Schildia malaya sp.n., is described from northern Malaysia. One extinct species, Schildia martini sp.n., is newly described from Dominican amber. Two new synonyms are proposed: Schildia ocellata Martin, 1975 is a junior synonym of Schildia gracillima and Schildia zonae Martin, 1975 is synonymized with Schildia fragilis. Redescriptions and descriptions of the genus and all extant and extinct species are provided. An identification key to the extant and extinct species is presented. Illustrations, photographs, and scanning electron micrographs are provided to support the descriptions and key. Distribution, biogeography, occurrence in biodiversity hotspots, seasonal incidence and biology are discussed.

Ancient DNA analysis of the extinct North American flat-headed peccary (Platygonus compressus)

The genus Zelkova (Ulmaceae) has occurred in Europe and Southwest Asia since the Eocene represented mostly by the fossil species Z. zelkovifolia. Currently, relict populations of Z. abelicea, Z. sicula and Z. carpinifolia can be found in Crete, Sicily and the Euxino-Hyrcanian province, respectively. To reveal relationships between extinct and extant Zelkova species, we compared fossil Miocene leaves of Z. zelkovifolia and leaves of extant species using morphological leaf characteristics and statistical methods (Tukey’s test, discrimination analysis, principal component analysis, agglomeration). The fossil leaves of Z. zelkovifolia appeared more variable and generally intermediate between all three extant species. The lowest level of significant differences was found between Z. zelkovifolia and Z. abelicea in the leaves from fertile shoots and between Z. zelkovifolia and Z. sicula leaves from vegetative long shoots. The intermediate positions of fossil leaves of Z. zelkovifolia between leaves of Z. abelicea, Z. sicula and Z. carpinifolia could indicate that the extinct species was an ancestor of all three extant taxa. Consequently, this result suggests divergence between Z. abelicea, Z. sicula and Z. carpinifolia no earlier than the late Miocene and/or during the Pliocene.

Pterocarya (Juglandaceae) is disjunctly distributed in East Asia and the Caucasus region today, but its fossils are widely distributed in the Northern Hemisphere. We first inferred phylogeny with time estimation of Pterocarya under node‐dating (ND) based on plastomes of all eight extant species and tip‐dating (TD) based on plastomes and 69 morphological characters of 19 extant and extinct species, respectively. We compared the biogeographical reconstructions on the timetrees from ND and TD, respectively, and then compiled 83 fossil records and 599 current occurrences for predicting the potential distributions for the past and the future. The most recent comment ancestor of Pterocarya is inferred in East Asia at 40.46 Ma (95% highest posterior density [HPD]: 28.04–54.86) under TD and 26.81 Ma (95% HPD: 23.03–33.12) under ND. The current distribution was attributed to one dispersal and one vicariant event without fossils, but as many as six dispersal, six vicariant, and 11 local extinction events when considering fossils. Pterocarya migrated between East Asia and North America via the Bering Land Bridge during the early Oligocene and the early Miocene periods. With the closure of Turgai Strait, Pterocarya dispersed between East Asia and Europe through the Miocene. The potential distribution analyses indicated that Pterocarya preferred warm temperate regions across the Northern Hemisphere since the Oligocene, but the drastic temperature decline caused its extinction in high latitudes. Except for Pterocarya fraxinifolia and Pterocarya stenoptera , suitable habitats for this genus are predicted to contract by 2070 due to climate change.

BackgroundAncient protein sequences are increasingly used to elucidate the phylogenetic relationships between extinct and extant mammalian taxa. Here, we apply these recent developments to Middle Pleistocene bone specimens of the rhinoceros genus Stephanorhinus. No biomolecular sequence data is currently available for this genus, leaving phylogenetic hypotheses on its evolutionary relationships to extant and extinct rhinoceroses untested. Furthermore, recent phylogenies based on Rhinocerotidae (partial or complete) mitochondrial DNA sequences differ in the placement of the Sumatran rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis). Therefore, studies utilising ancient protein sequences from Middle Pleistocene contexts have the potential to provide further insights into the phylogenetic relationships between extant and extinct species, including Stephanorhinus and Dicerorhinus.MethodsZooMS screening (zooarchaeology by mass spectrometry) was performed on several Late and Middle Pleistocene specimens from the genus Stephanorhinus, subsequently followed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) to obtain ancient protein sequences from a Middle Pleistocene Stephanorhinus specimen. We performed parallel analysis on a Late Pleistocene woolly rhinoceros specimen and extant species of rhinoceroses, resulting in the availability of protein sequence data for five extant species and two extinct genera. Phylogenetic analysis additionally included all extant Perissodactyla genera (Equus, Tapirus), and was conducted using Bayesian (MrBayes) and maximum-likelihood (RAxML) methods.ResultsVarious ancient proteins were identified in both the Middle and Late Pleistocene rhinoceros samples. Protein degradation and proteome complexity are consistent with an endogenous origin of the identified proteins. Phylogenetic analysis of informative proteins resolved the Perissodactyla phylogeny in agreement with previous studies in regards to the placement of the families Equidae, Tapiridae, and Rhinocerotidae. Stephanorhinus is shown to be most closely related to the genera Coelodonta and Dicerorhinus. The protein sequence data further places the Sumatran rhino in a clade together with the genus Rhinoceros, opposed to forming a clade with the black and white rhinoceros species.DiscussionThe first biomolecular dataset available for Stephanorhinus places this genus together with the extinct genus Coelodonta and the extant genus Dicerorhinus. This is in agreement with morphological studies, although we are unable to resolve the order of divergence between these genera based on the protein sequences available. Our data supports the placement of the genus Dicerorhinus in a clade together with extant Rhinoceros species. Finally, the availability of protein sequence data for both extinct European rhinoceros genera allows future investigations into their geographic distribution and extinction chronologies.

The evolutionary history of large carnivorous mammals through the Ice Age have been investigated for the Italian peninsula. No endemisms are recorded in the mainland of Italy and large carnivore species composition reflected the similar fauna of European continent. Morpho-ecological adaptation of extinct Plio-Pleistocene species have been investigated throughout temporal PaleoCommunities (9 PCOMs – spanning 3.2 to 0.3 Ma) with statistical accuracy. Trophic apparatus of extant and extinct species was investigated with a geometric morphometric analysis of mandible shape while locomotory habits were assessed using long bone indices. The mandible shape analysis performed on extant Carnivora taxa confirms their morphological differences due principally to taxonomic affiliation (family). Although, when phylogenetic history is controlled with comparative methods, significant differences still to occur among taxa with different diets and between small and large forms (threshold posed at 7 kilograms). Interestingly, both mandibular regions (corpus and ascending ramus) are informative of Carnivora ecological adaptations and they result integrated at a macroevolutionary scale. This survey allows to consider geometric morphometric as a reliable technique to apply on fossil mandibles. Feeding habits have been predicted with a good degree of accuracy in several PlioPleistocene large carnivores on the basis of mandible shape data. The latter data –selecting only the corpus regionhave been considered also to perform a morphospace comparison between large carnivore guilds of Italian PCOMs and extant guilds representative of five mainland ecosystems worldwide. Disparity values computed for mandibular corpus shape of Plio-Pleistocene guilds did not differ significantly from extant guilds. Morphological variability in mandible shape is negatively influenced by number of species in each guild as well as number of prey confirming that ecomorph specialization does not occur at the extreme region of morphospace. Long bone proportions of Plio-Pleistocene large carnivores are grouped in the variability of extant species. Although some phenomena of morphological convergences occur among extinct and extant taxa because of similar locomotor adaptation (e.g. cursorial) and same body size constraint. These morphoecological data were also used to predict the relative adaptability of Plio-Pleistocene species to certain habitats (grassland and tropical). The macroecological analysis of presence/absence data confirms the striking relationship between the abundances of both predators and their prey thought Ice Age. On the other hand no morphoecological coordinate changes occurs between predators and their prey. It is noteworthy that large carnivores are overrepresented in the Italian fossil record and became rarer from Galerian to the Aurelian (also because of a possible interaction with human activities). A GIS model was then computed to compare large mammal communities toward Plio-Pleistocene in Italy. Structural changes occurred in large herbivore communities from Villafranchian through the Aurelian because of climate changes. On the other hand, the spatial structure of large carnivore communities was more affected by their prey during the Villafranchian, while in the Galerian and Aurelian there was a greater influence of uncontrolled factors like climate and human activity as well.

Generally, the species is considered to be the only naturally occurring taxon. However, species recognized and defined using different species delimitation criteria cannot readily be compared, impacting studies of biodiversity through Deep Time. This comparability issue is particularly marked when comparing extant with extinct species because the only available data for species delimitation in fossils are derived from their preserved morphology, which is generally restricted to osteology in vertebrates. Here, we quantify intraspecific, intrageneric, and intergeneric osteological variability in extant species of lacertid lizards using pairwise dissimilarity scores based on a data set of 253 discrete osteological characters for 99 specimens referred to 24 species. Variability is always significantly lower intraspecifically than between individuals belonging to distinct species of a single genus, which is in turn significantly lower than intergeneric variability. Average values of intraspecific variability and associated standard deviations are consistent (with few exceptions), with an overall average within a species of 0.208 changes per character scored. Application of the same methods to six extinct lacertid species (represented by 40 fossil specimens) revealed that intraspecific osteological variability is inconsistent, which can at least in part be attributed to different researchers having unequal expectations of the skeletal dissimilarity within species units. Such a divergent interpretation of intraspecific and interspecific variability among extant and extinct species reinforces the incomparability of the species unit. Lacertidae is an example where extant species recognized and defined based on a number of delimitation criteria show comparable and consistent intraspecific osteological variability. Here, as well as in equivalent cases, application of those skeletal dissimilarity values to paleontological species delimitation potentially provides a way to ameliorate inconsistencies created by the use of morphology to define species. [Intraspecific variation; Lacertidae; morphological disparity; osteology; species delimitation; taxonomic bias.].

Nothofagus trees are undoubtedly one of the most distinctive elements in the Andean region. With an exclusive distribution in the Southern Hemisphere, they play a relevant evolutionary role in reconstructing the phylogeny and biogeographical history of austral biotas. In this study, we assembled a phylogenetic matrix that integrates morphological and molecular evidence, incorporating both extant and extinct taxa of Nothofagus. On the basis of this phylogeny, we examined the evolutionary patterns of morphological traits previously used in taxon delimitation and tested whether proposed synapomorphies support species-level relationships, particularly among Andean taxa. The integrative phylogeny confirms evolutionary links between extant and extinct species, highlighting the importance of assessing leaf morphological characters when analysing extinct and extant species together. Differences in foliar features such as margin, serrations and venation are evident between primitive and more recently diverged clades. The venation pattern is one of the most informative traits, offering valuable insights into evolutionary processes and the responses of plants to environmental conditions. This research provides insights into the ancestral relationships within the genus Nothofagus and helps to elucidate its history, particularly in the Andean region.

Introduction: The genus Agassizia in Mexico is represented both in the fossil record with the species Agassizia regia† during the Miocene of Chiapas and in the extant species Agassizia excentrica on the Atlantic coast and Agassizia scrobiculata on the Pacific coast. Qualitative diagnosis and descriptions make it hard to distinguish morphological boundaries between species, especially in groups with fossils and recent representatives, increasing the level of complexity by having samples of disparate qualities and quantities. Objective: We propose the use of little explored statistical methods in the comparison of paleontological and biological populations. This methodology allowed us to resolve issues of missing values in a morphometric data set for the genus Agassizia. Methods: Using samples recently collected and specimens already housed in collections, we explore a routine of recovery of missing data MICE and the numerical and graphic analyses PERMANOVA, PCA, and SIMPER to compare morphometric parameters between these species for recognizing diagnostic characters. Results: Our results show a clear morphological difference in the length of the ambulacrum II and the length and width of the periproct and peristome structures, these being greater in A. scrobiculata, with a consistent pattern in both population samples not previously described. Conclusions: Quantitative morphometric comparisons can be an assertive and complementary tool to determine distinctive differentiation characteristics in species of the same genus. Comparative morphology reviews should be an ongoing exercise to keep taxonomic knowledge on both extinct and extant species up to date. Our research encourage the scientific community studying fossil populations to utilize quantitative and multivariate methods to strengthen their investigations.

Despite the considerable research that has focused on the evolutionary relationships and biogeography of the genus Bufo, an evolutionary synthesis of the entire group has not yet emerged. In the present study, almost 4 kb of DNA sequence data from mitochondrial (12S, tRNAVal, and 16S) and nuclear (POMC; Rag-1) genes, and 83 characters from morphology were analysed to infer a phylogeny of South American toads. Phylogenies were reconstructed with parsimony and maximum likelihood and Bayesian model-based methods. The results of the analysis of morphological data support the hypothesis that within Bufo, some skull characters (e.g. frontoparietal width), correlated with the amount of cranial ossification, are prone to homoplasy. Unique and unreversed morphological synapomorphies are presented that can be used to diagnose recognized species groups of South American toads. The results of all phylogenetic analyses support the monophyly of most species groups of South American Bufo. In most DNA-only and combined analyses, the South American (minus the B. guttatus and part of the ‘B. spinulosus’ groups), North American, Central American, and African lineages form generally well-supported clades: ((((((((South America) (North America + Central America)) Eurasia) Africa) Eurasia) South America) West Indies) South America). This result confirms and extends prior studies recovering South American Bufo as polyphyletic. The biogeographical results indicate that: (1) The origin of Bufo predates the fragmentation of Gondwana; (2) Central and North American species compose the sister group to a large, ‘derived’ clade of South American Bufo; and (3) Eurasian species form the sister group to the New World clade. © 2006 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2006, 146, 407–452.

One adaptation crucial to the survival of mammalian lineages that secondarily transitioned from land to water environments was the ability to capture and consume prey underwater. Phocid seals have evolved diverse feeding strategies to feed in the marine environment, and the objectives of this study were to document the specialized feeding morphologies and identify feeding strategies used by extant phocids. This study used principal component analysis (PCA) to determine the major axes of diversification in the skull for all extant phocid taxa and the recently extinct Caribbean monk seal (n = 19). Prey data gathered from the literature and musculoskeletal data from dissections were included to provide a comprehensive description of each feeding strategy. Random Forest analysis was used to determine the morphological, ecological and phylogenetic variables that best described each feeding strategy. There is morphological evidence for four feeding strategies in phocids: filter; grip and tear; suction; and pierce feeding. These feeding strategies are supported by quantitative cranial and mandibular characters, dietary information, musculoskeletal data and, for some species, behavioral observations. Most phocid species are pierce feeders, using a combination of biting and suction to opportunistically catch prey. Grip and tear and filter feeding are specialized strategies with specific morphological adaptations. These unique adaptations have allowed leopard seals (Hydrurga leptonyx) and crabeater seals (Lobodon carcinophaga) to exploit novel ecological niches and prey types. This study provides the first cranial and mandibular morphological evidence for the use of specialized suction feeding in hooded seals (Cystophora cristata), northern elephant seals (Mirounga angustirostris) and southern elephant seals (Mirounga leonina). The most important variables in determining the feeding strategy of a given phocid species were cranial and mandibular shape, diet, and phylogeny. These results provide a framework for understanding the evolution and adaptability of feeding strategies employed by extant phocid species, and these findings can be applied to other pinniped lineages and extinct taxa.

Human influence on distribution and extinctions of the late Pleistocene Eurasian megafauna

Bipolaris sorokiniana (Sacc.) Shoemaker is a major foliar and root-infecting pathogen of cool-season forage and turf grasses and small grains in the southeastern United States (2). In North America, B. sorokiniana has been reported from bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon [L.] Pers.) once in California in 1961 (1), and rarely from other warm-season grasses in the southeastern United States. In May, July, September, and October 2002, B. sorokiniana sporulation was observed on leaves of common bermudagrass exhibiting necrotic lesions and dieback in waste application fields on three commercial swine farms in Chickasaw, Lowndes, and Webster counties, MS. Leaves were collected (50 per farm per month), surface-disinfested, plated on water agar, and observed for fungal sporulation on leaf surfaces after 7 to 10 days (3,4). The pathogen was detected on 1 to 3 farms each month in leaves that were infected with numerous other dematiaceous hyphomycetes (3,4). Three randomly selected single-spore isolates of B. sorokiniana from each of bermudagrass and annual ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum Lam.), collected at the Webster County farm, were compared for select features of morphology and pathogenicity on bermudagrass. Isolates differed significantly in growth rates, amount of sporulation, and spore sizes on cornmeal agar, but differences were not consistently related to hosts of origin. In plants inoculated by atomizing equal quantities of spores (2.8 × 104/ml) onto foliage, isolates of B. sorokiniana from bermudagrass and ryegrass both caused significantly (P = 0.05) more severe foliar necrosis after 10 days than B. cynodontis (5 pots of seeded plants per treatment in each of two experiments). B. sorokiniana was reisolated from disinfested, symptomatic bermudagrass leaf tissue following inoculations. To our knowledge, this is the first report of B. sorokiniana on bermudagrass in North America outside of California (1) and indicates that this pathogen is highly virulent on bermudagrass in the southeastern United States (3,4). Of potentially greater importance is the fact that one of the most common and widespread forage and turf grass species in the southeastern United States can serve as an alternate host for maintenance and increase of inoculum of B. sorokiniana during summer months.

To the Editor: Bluetongue is an arboviral disease of domestic and wild ruminants characterized by vascular injury that produces widespread edema and tissue necrosis (1). Bluetongue virus (BTV), the causative agent of bluetongue, is the prototype virus of the family Reoviridae and the genus Orbivirus (2). BTV occurs throughout temperate and tropical areas of the world coincident with the distribution of vector Culicoides spp. midges (3–5). Different midge species transmit different constellations of BTV serotypes in distinct global episystems (3,5). For example, C. sonorensis is the principal, if not exclusive, vector of BTV serotypes 10, 11, 13, and 17 in much of North America, whereas C. insignis is the major vector of multiple BTV serotypes (including BTV 1–4, 6, 8, 12, 17, 19, 20, and probably others) in the Caribbean basin, Central America, and South America. C. insignis is also found in the southeastern United States, and although this species might have recently expanded its range in the region, its distribution in North America remains poorly defined. Serotypes of BTV other than 10, 11, 13, and 17 are found in areas of the United States: BTV-2 was first reported in Florida in 1982. Since 1998, ten additional serotypes (BTV-1, 3, 5, 6, 9, 12, 14, 19, 22, and 24) have been identified in the southeastern United States (6). Approximately 26 BTV serotypes have been described and the global distribution of BTV has recently been altered (2,4). Coincident with the invasion of novel BTV serotypes into the southeastern United States (6), likely by extension from the adjacent Caribbean basin, multiple BTV serotypes have spread throughout much of continental Europe and parts of the British Isles and Scandinavia, precipitating an economically devastating epidemic (7). Similarly, ongoing surveillance has identified novel BTV serotypes in regions to which it historically has been endemic (e.g., Australia and the Middle East) (2). Climate change may have contributed to this dramatic recent expansion in global distribution of BTV, most notably in Europe (8). Bluetongue was first described in the late 19th century among sheep brought from Europe to South Africa, and later in North America in ≈1950 (4). Surveillance in western North America since that time has confirmed that only BTV-10, 11, 13 and 17 are present in this region, including our recent intensive surveillance of sentinel cattle on dairy farms throughout California, USA (9,10). However, during investigation of an outbreak of acute coronitis and ulcerative stomatitis among cattle at a dairy farm in the northern Sacramento Valley in California in August 2010, a blood sample from a heifer was found by using described methods (10) to be positive for BTV by serogroup-specific quantitative reverse transcription PCR (qRT-PCR) but negative by serotype-specific RT-qPCRs for BTV-10, 11, 13, and 17. Further analysis using additional serotype-specific RT-qPCRs identified virus in the blood sample as BTV-2. BTV was isolated in primary bovine endothelial cells from blood collected from the heifer. Sequence analysis of the serotype-specific L2 gene of the virus isolate confirmed it to be BTV-2 (2), and phylogenetic analyses showed it to be most closely related to a strain of BTV-2 isolated in Florida in 1999 (Figure). However, sequence analysis of the entire genome of the virus from California indicated that it is a reassortant that includes genes from BTV-6 and BTV-2. Specifically, genes encoding the viral protein 1 polymerase and viral protein 3 major core protein segregate with those of the US prototype strain of BTV-6 (isolated in 2006), but other genes are derived from BTV-2. BTV-2 and BTV-6 have been isolated only in the southeastern United States, which indicates translocation within the United States of reassortant BTV-2. Figure Cladogram comparing the L2 genes of different bluetongue virus (BTV) serotypes and global strains of BTV serotype 2 (BTV-2) with that of a virus isolated in northern California, USA (2-California-2010; GenBank accession nos. {type:entrez-nucleotide-range,attrs:{text:JQ822248-JQ822257,start_term:JQ822248,end_term:JQ822257,start_term_id:390980698,end_term_id:390980714}} ... How this virus spread to California is not known, and its distribution in the United States is uncertain because there is no comprehensive national BTV surveillance program. However, BTV-2 was not detected previously in California, suggesting that this serotype was recently introduced into the region or that it is uncommon. Identification of this novel BTV serotype in western North America emphasizes the need for ongoing entomologic and livestock surveillance, particularly in light of recent changes in the global distribution and nature of BTV infection (4,6,8).