A mixed-methods study of pesticide exposures in Breastmilk and Community & Lactating Women\u2019s perspectives from Haryana, India

Agricultural intensification is always associated with increased pest problems, which lead to increased use of pesticides. Being relatively cheap, effective and easy to use, farmers resort to chemical pesticides to overcome their pest problems. However, over-dependence and indiscriminate use of chemical pesticides have generated adverse effects on humans and the environment, causing resistance in pests and the destruction of natural enemies. For example, the indiscriminate use of pesticides resulted in outbreaks of brown planthoppers which destroyed rice worth US$2.4 million in Malaysia in the late 1970s.

Pesticides and fertilizers are widely used to enhance agriculture yields, although the fraction of the pesticides applied in the field that reaches the targets is less than 0.1%. Such indiscriminate use of chemical pesticides is disadvantageous due to the cost implications and increasing human health and environmental concerns. In recent years, the utilization of nanotechnology to create novel formulations has shown great potential for diminishing the indiscriminate use of pesticides and providing environmentally safer alternatives. Smart nano-based pesticides are designed to efficiently delivery sufficient amounts of active ingredients in response to biotic and/or abiotic stressors that act as triggers, employing targeted and controlled release mechanisms. This review discusses the current status of stimuli-responsive release systems with potential to be used in agriculture, highlighting the challenges and drawbacks that need to be overcome in order to accelerate the global commercialization of smart nanopesticides.

Uganda has a largely agrarian based economy with 85% of its nearly 35 million people living in rural areas and 80% of its labor force engaged in agricultural production as their primary form of livelihood. The agriculture sector also accounts for 40 percent of GDP and 85% of export earnings with 90% of this being generated by crop production. Horticultural production is one of the fastest growing agricultural sub-sectors with a growth rate of 20% per year. It contributes to value addition, income diversification and foreign exchange earnings through exports (UIA, 1999). Horticultural production in Uganda is dominated by small scale producers (2ha. or less) who produce for both local and export markets. The most important horticultural crops in the vegetable category include tomato, green beans, cowpea, pepper, onion, crucifers, and Amaranthas spp. Because of ravages of pests and diseases on these moderate to high value crops, pesticides are among the key inputs on these crops. The increased use of chemical pesticides on horticultural crops has raised a number of economic, ecological and health concerns. Economic concerns arise from the over reliance and use of chemical pesticides which increase the costs of production. Indiscriminate use of pesticides has resulted in ecological problems of common pests developing resistance, elimination of natural enemies and other beneficial arthropods, and environmental pollution. Human health concerns focus on risks from shortcomings in protective clothing, large deviations from recommended doses/situations, and excessive run-off into the soil and water sources. These concerns are exacerbated by poorly regulated internal markets for pesticides that have fostered usage of banned or outdated products; creating a situation that if not stopped will negatively impact on horticultural exports to countries with more stringent regulatory requirements for fresh crop produce. Meeting these food safety requirements has become a major challenge for the fresh produce export sector of many African countries. To ensure and maintain export compliance, grower and consumer safety, and environmental integrity; farmers, government and development partners are developing programmes designed to improve pesticides usage, regulation and management on horticultural crops. In this chapter, three important horticultural crops grown in Uganda-

The indiscriminate use of pesticides in developing countries has impacted negatively on the environment and public health. Despite that informal households in Uganda carry a high pest burden, the safe use and disposal of pesticides is poorly studied. We determined the prevalence and pesticide use practices among the informal households in Mulago, a suburb of Kampala city. A cross-sectional survey was conducted among heads of informal households in Mulago II parish, using a semi-structured interview questionnaire. Out of the 56 households in the parish, twenty 20 household met the inclusion criterion for an informal household. Household heads were interviewed on the pest burden and the practices on safe use and disposal of pesticides. Data was analyzed using SPSSv21 software; the chi-square test was used for Univariate analysis. The mean pest burden per household was 4 ± 0.7 pests: mosquitoes 20 (100%), bedbugs 18 (90%; p < 0.001), rats and houseflies 16 (80%; p = 0.007), and cockroaches 15 (75%; p = 0.025). Most households, 17 (85%, p = 0.002) had used a pesticide within the last 2 weeks. The most commonly used pesticides were synthetic pyrethroid in form of aerosols 18 (90%) or insecticide coils 10 (50%) and organophosphate solutions 15 (75%). Pesticides were applied on walls 15 (75%; p < 0.001) and in open air 12 (60%; p = 0.086). Pesticides were stored in lockable cupboards in 6 (30%; p = 0.645) households. The use of pesticides was associated with having livestock, cost of pesticide and the burden of pest infestation. Informal households in Mulago parish have a high pest burden and usage of pesticides. The use, storage and disposal of pesticides are largely inappropriate. Public health interventions that promote the access to quality and safe use of pesticides at informal households are critical. Keywords: Prevalence, Pesticide Use, determinants of pesticide, Uganda.

Chapter 23 - Application of plant growth promoting rhizobacteria in remediation of pesticides contaminated stressed soil

Background: The unsafe use of chemical pesticides, along with the lack of appropriate preventive protocols and equipment may damage the health of users. Objective: To determine the knowledge and practice of the safe use of chemical pesticides by farm workers in northern Iran. Methods:The present cross-sectional study was conducted on 300 farmers in Mazandaran province, in 2017. The data collection instrument was a two-part questionnaire: The first part was concentrated on demographic and agricultural characteristics of the participants; the second part dealt with the farmers' knowledge and practice of the safe use of pesticides. Results: The mean knowledge and practice scores (out of 100) of the participating farmers in the safe use of pesticides were 84.8 (SD 13.5) and 50.8 (13.2), respectively. There was a significant positive correlation (r=0.466, p<0.001) between their knowledge and practice. Wearing protective clothes, while applying pesticides, was among safe practices. Although more than 60% of farmers had a sufficient level of knowledge of the safe use of pesticides, they did not implement their knowledge in practice. There was a significant (p<0.001) association between the education level and knowledge of the safe use of pesticides. Conclusion:There was a significant correlation between knowledge and practices of the safe use of pesticides among farmers in northern Iran. There was a clear know-do gap—although the majority of the participants possessed a sufficient level of knowledge of the safe use of pesticides, they did not implement it in practice.

Pesticides are widely used in agricultural purposes and indiscriminate use of pesticides resulted in unintentional harming of the environment. Lack of consciousness and education coupled with indifferent attitude also contributed to indiscriminate use of pesticides. Enormous amount of these toxic pesticides and other chemicals reaches in the aquatic environment by the runoff and other sources and polluted the water, air and soil for any living organisms. One of the fastest growing food producing sectors is aquaculture, supplying approximately 40% of the world’s fish food. Pesticides may be used in aquatic ecosystem to control the fish parasites, diseases, and other pests that have also adversely affected the aquatic ecosystem. Nuvan is an organophosphorus pesticide is widely used due to low persistence in environment but also affects the non-targeted organisms including fish. Synthetic chemicals generate environmental problems; researchers have been leaning towards pest control with natural or plant based substances. Protection of water quality is possible when rationalize the use of natural pesticides and promote biopesticides. Neem oil is a natural or mixtures of chemicals obtained from neem plant (Azadirachta indica) which has many significant benefits to overcome from the chemicals or synthetic pesticides. By making the health beneficial uses of neem oil accessible to the farmers in the society, the use of chemicals in agriculture can be reduced. The aim of the current study is to observe the impacts of nuvan and neem oil on the survival and health status of fishes which also affected the other animals by the food chain. Changes in blood parameters of fish are related to the response of the whole animal, which affect on survival, reproduction and growth of fish. Some alterations in cholesterol and triglycerides in serum of treated fish Clarias batrachus with 1/20 and 1/10 LC50 concentrations of nuvan and neem oil separately compared with non-treated one after 7, 15, 30 and 60 days of exposure were recorded and discussed. Also, this assessment may be essential for encourage suitable methods of application in aquatic organism production facilities to be fully explored in future.

One of the important objectives of this manuscript is to focus on the place of erectile dysfunction as an important factor for infertility. The review is about correlating the indiscriminate use of pesticides and to find out and highlight the evidences for mechanism of action of these pesticides for erectile dysfunction and find out the most used and most dangerous pesticide from erectile dysfunction point of view. The review suggests that erectile dysfunction is having a significant place as a causal factor for infertility. Study infers that pesticides are having multiple mechanisms of action through which these cause erectile dysfunction. It also reflects that acetamiprid is having most devastating effect causing erectile dysfunction as it acts through multiple inhibitory pathways. The review successfully highlights the indiscriminate regional use of pesticides.

Introduction Vegetable producers around the world heavily rely on the use of chemical pesticides to ensure pest control. Although pesticides do not directly contribute to agricultural yields, there is evidence to suggest that intensive use of pesticides has significantly increased agricultural production (Brethour and Weersink, 2001). However, pesticide use also poses risks to human health and the environment (Travisi et al., 2006). Thus, it is important to examine the trade-offs associated with the costs and benefits of pesticides under different empirical contexts. Several studies show that there are significant social and environmental costs to pesticide use (Ajayi, 2000; Antle and Pingali, 1994; Antle and Capalbo, 1994, Rola and Pingali, 1993). Some of these studies (Rola and Pingali, 1993; Rahman, 2002) also suggest that indiscriminate pesticide use can lead to larger pest-related yield losses relative to situations where pesticides are not applied. In the absence of pest attacks, pesticide use only results in extra costs and no real benefits. Nevertheless, in the hope of combating the problem of pests, farmers frequently apply high doses and disproportionate combinations of several pesticides, contributing to a pesticide treadmill in certain areas (Shetty, 2003). Farmers in developing countries in particular continue to use pesticides at increasing rates (WRI, 1998). Pesticides do not enhance productivity directly like other standard factors of production such as land, labour and capital. Rather, they help farmers compete against pests that would otherwise reduce agricultural output.

Biopesticides are perceived as a feasible alternative to chemical pesticides, providing an effective approach to pest management while mitigating the undesirable effects of chemical pesticide overuse. Yet, due to the distinctive attributes of the two types of pesticides, farmers often adopt a combination of both. This study aimed to probe the interdependent relationship underlying the mixed use of chemical pesticides and biopesticides by farmers in the rice–crayfish integrated system (RCIS) in Hubei province, China. We also sought to identify influencing factors and associated consequences of this practice. Given that the adoption of chemical pesticides and biopesticides by farmers is not mutually exclusive, a multivariable probit model was utilized to estimate simultaneous pesticide applications. Survey data from 736 RCIS farmers revealed that 10.50% of the sample farmers employ a combination of chemical pesticides and biopesticides. A substitution relationship was observed between the adoption of chemical pesticides and biopesticides by farmers, whereas no significant complementary relationship was found in the application of the two types of pesticides. The primary motivation for the mixed use of pesticides by farmers is to achieve superior pest control efficacy. Notably, when integrating the use of pesticides, farmers pay less attention to factors such as resource endowments and multiple production objectives. Further analysis indicated that farmers display significant concern for pesticide attributes including insecticidal efficacy, toxicity, insecticidal spectrum, and validity period. The mixed use of pesticides has resulted in a decreased frequency of pesticide application but has escalated the cost. While the mixed use of pesticides elevated the selling price of rice, no significant improvement was observed in yield and output value. The insights garnered from this study offer strategic implications for policymakers on how to enhance the judicious adoption of pesticides by farmers.

The indiscriminate use of pesticides in agriculture poses serious health and environmental risks, especially in regions with weak regulatory enforcement. This study examines pesticide handling practices among farmers and assesses pesticide residues in yam (Dioscorea spp.) and cassava (Manihot esculenta) across Nasarawa South, Nigeria. Data were collected from 430 farmers using structured questionnaires and analysed with descriptive statistics and Chi-square tests. Additionally, yam and cassava samples were analyzed for pesticide residues using QuEChERS extraction and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Residue recovery ranged from 70% to 130%, confirming method reliability. Findings indicated poor adherence to safe storage and disposal practices, with household trash disposal being the most common method, posing environmental risks. Regional disparities were noted: Lafia exhibited better compliance in pesticide storage and disposal, while Awe lagged. Residue analysis revealed organochlorine, organophosphate, carbamate, and pyrethroid pesticides in food samples. Although no pesticide residues were detected in yam from Awe and cassava from Lafia, banned pesticides like Benzene Hexa Chloride (BHC) (0.000066 mg/kg) and Dichloro Diphenyl Trichloro Ethane (DDT) (0.00013 mg/kg) were found at varying concentrations in the cassava sample. However, mean residue levels remained below maximum residue limits. These findings underscore the urgent need for improved farmer education, stricter regulations, and sustainable pest management to mitigate health risks associated with pesticide exposure.

This study determined the role of farmer institutions and government policies on farmers’ behaviour in the use of chemical pesticides. Questionnaire was used in as data collection instrument. The research location was Kolaka Timur (Koltim) Regency that has been cultivating lowland rice since the 1980s and become one of the centres of rice production in Southeast Sulawesi and the majority of the farmers are still dependent on pesticides in pests and diseases controlling in rice plants The population of this study was 273 lowland rice farmers. The sampling technique was by simple random sampling of 20% of the total population so that the sample size is 55 respondents. Descriptive data analysis, Spearman rank correlation analysis, and multiple regression were conducted with the SPSS program. The results showed that farmers’ behaviour in the use of chemical pesticides was not as recommended. External factors that influence the behaviour of farmers in the use of pesticides are the role of farmer institutions in making group rules and so the existence of government policies as the use of chemical pesticides guidelines is recommended.Keywords: Farmers’ behaviour, pesticides utilization, lowland rice, food security

Pesticide residues in human breast milk: Risk assessment for infants from Punjab, India

Pesticides play an integral role in the control of pests such as insects, fungi and weeds on field crop and orchards, to produce and conserve food grains, fruits, vegetables and fibre. All insects are not pests. Some help in pollinating plants or feeding on other insects which are pests. Control of pests is a need to protect crop for better yield. Proper use of pesticide is however a critical. Excessive dosage may damage or even kill the plant, whereas under dosage will not give effective control. Desirable flora and fauna and environment may be harmed by indiscriminate use of pesticides. Success of plant protection will depend upon the use of right pesticide, at the right time, with the right technique and by the right equipment. So, an attempt has been made in this chapter to makes aware and familiar farmers, researchers, scientists and readers, with the plant protection equipment, their basic classification, basic components of sprayers, nozzle and their types, brief description of various types of sprayers and dusters used for plant protection, selection of plant protection equipment, calibration of plant spraying equipment, maintenance of plant protection equipment, safety precautions to be taken by operator before, during and after spraying etc. This crucial information on plant protection equipment will be useful for effectively controlling pests and diseases on field crops as well as orchards.

&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background.&lt;/strong&gt; One of the problems in Mexico about the use and quantification of pesticides, is that there is a lack of efficient regulation and monitoring because there is no detailed information on its use, so this work analyzes the use of pesticides in Mexico. &lt;strong&gt;Objective.&lt;/strong&gt; To know the current situation of the use of chemical pesticides used in Mexico. &lt;strong&gt;Methodology.&lt;/strong&gt; A search and systematic review of scientific publications related to pesticides in Mexico during the last 20 years in indexed or arbitrated journals. &lt;strong&gt;Results.&lt;/strong&gt; The analysis of these investigations indicates that in Mexico in 2018&amp;gt; 61,000 tons of pesticides were imported, although in 2017 the production was greater than 106 thousand tons. One of the problems in Mexico, as in other countries, is that there is a lack of efficient regulation and monitoring of the use of pesticides. During the last two decades the total consumption of pesticides in Mexico increased between 57-65%, the data from the available sources of their consumption show differences of the annual average of 27%, equivalent to 14,000 t per year, greater than the consumed in 2016 by countries such as Uruguay, Greece, Portugal, the Netherlands and Honduras. &lt;strong&gt;Implications. &lt;/strong&gt;In order to reduce this problem, it is proposed to implement a "national logbook for the registration and use of pesticides" that includes the type of pesticide used, brand, active ingredient, applied dose (Kg / ha) and frequency of application. &lt;strong&gt;Conclusions. &lt;/strong&gt;The obvious inconsistency of thousands of tons between national and international statistics is due to an inadequate quantification of pesticide use, a characteristic that occurs not only in Mexico. This situation is a serious global threat with environmental, economic and social implications, since the potential ecological damage is underestimated. Knowing the actual amount of pesticides used and will allow promoting real strategies aimed at reducing their use.&lt;/p&gt;