A Means to Alleviate the Bushmeat Crisis? The Feasibility of Establishing Sustainable Grasscutter Farms in Kenya

In Africa, the unsustainable, illegal hunting of wild animals for food, commonly referred to as the bushmeat crisis, causes multiple problems for ecosystems and human health. Given the lack of management of bushmeat hunting and rapidly expanding human population densities, the potential for overharvesting, driving populations of native species to local extinction, is of major concern unless effective and feasible alternatives can be developed. The farming of desirable native species offers one solution to reducing the demand for bushmeat, but farms must be economically viable, environmentally sustainable, and socially acceptable. This research uses Geographic Information Systems to examine the feasibility of establishing large native rodent (Thyronomys swinderianus) farms in Kenya. Given their high protein content, these rodents, commonly known as grasscutters, are a highly sought bushmeat species and have been successfully farmed in West and Central Africa. I performed an extensive literature review and consulted with grasscutter and sustainable livestock farm experts located in sub-Saharan Africa to determine physical and socio-political geographic factors most likely to constrain the development of sustainable grasscutter farms in Kenya, before using ArcGIS to map these criteria and a weighted overlay analysis to identify potentially favorable locations for establishing future farms. These maps identified three suitable geographic locations: the Western and Nyanza provinces; the Central province; and the southeastern tip of the Coastal province. The majority of Kenya reflects moderately suitable locations that are feasible for establishment as grasscutters are adaptive, low-intensity livestock, and previous studies have identified some of these moderately suitable locations as accepted livestock centers. These results are encouraging for the implementation of sustainable grasscutter farming in Kenya and the diversification of protein sources and economic development opportunities for rural dwellers. While the maps created are specific to Kenya, the methodology developed in this study is useful to global stakeholders attempting to alleviate the bushmeat crisis, combat food insecurity in a sustainable manner, and/or provide means of economic development to developing countries.

This paper analyses the regional variations in contraceptive use between Central, Nyanza and Coast Provinces in Kenya among currently married, fecund women drawn from the 2008-09 Kenya Demographic and Health Survey (KDHS) data. Specifically the study examined the role of socio-economic, cultural and demographic factors in explaining these variations using both bivariate and logistic regression. The analysis confirmed the higher use of contraception in Central compared to Nyanza and Coast. Current use of modern contraceptive methods in Central is 70 percent compared with 39 percent and 37 percent for Nyanza and Coast respectively. The higher contraceptive use in Central is attributed to the better socio-economic and cultural environment compared with the other two provinces. Central Province has very few cases of women with no education, a much lower percentage in the poorest wealth (9.6) category and the highest proportionin monogamous unions (97.1). The higher socio-economic status and better cultural environment has in turn created a favourable environment for the use of contraception through the intervening variables of knowledge on family planning and fertility preferences. The logistic regression results suggest that differences in contraceptive use between the three provinces could be narrowed by increasing the level of education in Coast and overcoming traditional practices such as polygyny in both Nyanza and Coast. Although mortality is still important, its effect has declined. However, the unexpected finding that contraceptive use is higher in rural areas of Central and Nyanza Provinces suggests further research to understand what could be responsible for the reversal.

BackgroundAphids are major vectors of plant viruses. Common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and maize (Zea mays L.) are important crops that are vulnerable to aphid herbivory and aphid-transmitted viruses. In East and Central Africa, common bean is frequently intercropped by smallholder farmers to provide fixed nitrogen for cultivation of starch crops such as maize. We used a PCR-based technique to identify aphids prevalent in smallholder bean farms and next generation sequencing shotgun metagenomics to examine the diversity of viruses present in aphids and in maize leaf samples. Samples were collected from farms in Kenya in a range of agro-ecological zones.ResultsCytochrome oxidase 1 (CO1) gene sequencing showed that Aphis fabae was the sole aphid species present in bean plots in the farms visited. Sequencing of total RNA from aphids using the Illumina platform detected three dicistroviruses. Maize leaf RNA was also analysed. Identification of Aphid lethal paralysis virus (ALPV), Rhopalosiphum padi virus (RhPV), and a novel Big Sioux River virus (BSRV)-like dicistrovirus in aphid and maize samples was confirmed using reverse transcription-polymerase chain reactions and sequencing of amplified DNA products. Phylogenetic, nucleotide and protein sequence analyses of eight ALPV genomes revealed evidence of intra-species recombination, with the data suggesting there may be two ALPV lineages. Analysis of BSRV-like virus genomic RNA sequences revealed features that are consistent with other dicistroviruses and that it is phylogenetically closely related to dicistroviruses of the genus Cripavirus.ConclusionsThe discovery of ALPV and RhPV in aphids and maize further demonstrates the broad occurrence of these dicistroviruses. Dicistroviruses are remarkable in that they use plants as reservoirs that facilitate infection of their insect replicative hosts, such as aphids. This is the first report of these viruses being isolated from either organism. The BSRV-like sequences represent a potentially novel dicistrovirus infecting A. fabae.

Chlorfenvinphos is one of the organophosphates largely produced around the world to control mites and ticks in dairy farming. However, it is toxic and has serious effects on the nervous system and other organ systems. It has a long residual effect in the environment posing risks to both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. In this study, three species of bacteria isolated from chlorpyrifos contaminated dairy farms in Kenya were screened for their ability to produce chlorfenvinphos degrading organophosphorus phosphatase enzymes. The isolates, Advenella kashmirensis, Micrococcus luteus, and Lysinibacillus sphaericus grew at different rates when both temperature and pH were varied. The optimal growth temperature for the three isolates was 35°C while the optimal pH of M. luteus and L. sphaericus was 7 and 6 for A. kashmirensis. At these optimal conditions, A. kashmirensis had the highest growth (OD 0.175) followed by L. sphaericus (OD 0.132) while M. luteus had the lowest (OD 0.106). Crude protein concentration was highest for A. kashmirensis (465.4 ± 31.8 μg/mL) and was significantly different from the concentrations of the other isolates (p < 0.05). This suggests its suitability for applications requiring high concentrations of total proteins. On purification of crude protein using ammonium sulfate precipitation and gel filtration, A. kashmirensis exhibited the highest enzyme activity (19.8 ± 0.8 µMol/Min and was significantly different from M. luteus (13.8 ± 0.98 µMol/Min and L. sphaericus (11.8 ± 0.2 µMol/Min. These results suggest A. kashmirensis is superior in bioremediating chlorfenvinphos polluted environments and can be used to clean up polluted dairy farms. However, more studies are required to explore how the isolates interact with each other in their natural environments with a view of coming up with more efficient degradation process to restore polluted dairy farms and reduce the risk of the acaricide entering aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems from where it can easily enter into food chains affecting a wide variety of organisms.

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is recommended in both developed and developing countries as a sustainable approach to pest management in agriculture. In adoption of IPM technologies, the use of chemical pesticides is expected to reduce resulting in positive gains in human and environmental health while still maintaining agricultural productivity. The introduction and adoption of IPM among farmers in Kenya would require that extension officers be closely involved in guiding the farmers in the implementation process. Views of the extension officers regarding IPM and its underlying principles are, therefore, crucial because of their important task as educators. The purpose of this study was to describe the perceptions of Kenyan agricultural extension officers regarding IPM. The study was conducted among extension officers and data for the study was collected from 193 extension officers in the Central and Eastern provinces of Kenya. The results showed that the extension officers were positive about the various concepts suggested in IPM. The extension officers further believed that IPM has the potential to contribute effectively in pest management by the majority of small scale farmers in Kenya. The extension officers viewed crop rotation, a cultural practice, to be of priority use in pest management. Most of the other IPM practices were considered practical in maintaining agricultural productivity. On the basis of the positive perceptions of the extension officers regarding IPM, the government of Kenya should establish a supportive policy that will enable the extension officers to promote and educate farmers on the various IPM practices. International Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development Vol. 7(2) 2006: 125-133

Kenya’s economy is largely dependent on rainfed agriculture and hence susceptible to climate change and extreme weather events. Potato (Solanum tuberosum), one of the most important food crops in Kenya is one of the worst hit agricultural systems. Smallholder potato farmers have resorted to Climate Smart Agricultural Technologies and Management Practices (CSA TMPs) as an adaptation strategy. Partly, climate-smart agricultural TMPs are implemented with the goal of reducing the vulnerability of farmers to the harmful effects of climate change such as poor sustainability of agricultural systems. This study sought to contribute to improved food security and livelihood of smallholder farmers in rural areas through enhanced sustainability in potato farming. A cross sectional survey design was employed. The study area was Taita-Taveta, Nyandarua, Nyeri and Elgeyo Marakwet Counties in Kenya. A multi-stage sampling technique was used to get the study sample of 312 smallholder farmers. Primary data was collected using questionnaires, Key Informant Interviews (KIIs) and Focus Group Discussions (FGDs). Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyze the collected data using Stata (version 14), DEAP (version 2.1) and NVivo (version 12) software. Descriptive statistics were used to characterize the types of climate-smart agricultural TIMPs among smallholder potato farmers. A threefold Blinder–Oaxaca decomposition of the Fractional Response Model was used in analyzing the influence of selected CSA TMPs on the relative sustainability of smallholder potato farming. This study found that the relative sustainability index obtained by adopters of CSA TMPs recommendations in potato farming was 58.1% greater than that of nonadopters. More financial, technical and policy support should be given by the governments at both national and county levels as well as other development partners towards enhancing uptake of CSA technologies in their bid to enhance the relative sustainability of potato farming.

A study was conducted in 5 districts in Kenya (Muranga, Thika and Maragua in Central Province, and Makueni and Embu in Eastern Province) to determine the factors linked to the acquisition of integrated pest management (IPM) knowledge and sharing among the two different group-based farmers, as well as among farmers operating individually (the control group). Data were collected from May to July 2008 focusing on active smallholder vegetable and fruit producers grouped in three categories: farmer field schools (FFS) members, common interest rgroups (CIG) members, and control farmers. The control farmers were not members of the two group-based training approaches, but they were sampled from the same villages as the FFS and CIG farmers. According to the marginal effect result, FFS and CIG membership, the number of groups to which farmers belonged (excluding FFS and CIG), farmer household memberś literacy and locality positively and significantly affected IPM knowledge acquisition, whereas household size, land size, permanent labour, casual labour, access to horticulture production information, distance to extension services, farmer visitors, frequency of listening to horticulture production information on the radio, and frequency of reading newspaper articles on horticulture production negatively and significantly affected IPM knowledge acquisition. Knowledge sharing was significantly and positively associated with the number of casual labourers employed, IPM knowledge acquisition, and the number of visitors received, whereas membership in FFS, gender and locality significantly and negatively affected IPM knowledge sharing.

This study was conducted to assess the status of cross-border bean marketing patterns in the border districts of Kenya and Uganda. Common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is an important legume crop in East and Central Africa, providing protein, calories and cash income for rural households. Smallholder farmers in Kenya and Uganda have adopted improved bean varieties. However, the demand for common bean in Kenyan market far outstrips local supply and the country is a net importer from Uganda and Tanzania. In the recent years, Kenya’s bean production has been declining mainly due to bad weather conditions and poor pricing policies. An efficient bean marketing system enhances food security. The objectives of this study were to assess the technical efficiency in terms of marketing margins and assess the regional market integration in the bean marketing system. Purposive and systematic random sampling methods were used to select the study districts and bean traders respectively. One hundred and six respondents were interviewed using structured questionnaires. Descriptive statistics were used to analyse the data. The Statistical Package for Social Scientists (SPSS) was used to generate the Pearson’s bivariate Correlation coefficients. The study revealed that marketing margins earned by the middlemen, agents and exporters in both Kenya and Uganda though in excess of transfer costs were justified, given the existing institutional and legal barriers. The results further revealed low levels of technical efficiency due to market imperfections. Correlation coefficients analysis of wholesale bean prices revealed that regional bean markets in the study area are integrated. Key words: Bean, bean prices, cross-border marketing, market integration.

Land degradation in the smallholder farming systems in sub-Saharan Africa is mainly related to insufficient adoption of sustainable agriculture technologies. This study was aimed at investigating the potential of biological inoculants to improve crop yields and control plant diseases in a profitable manner. Three rhizobia inoculants for soybean or common bean, 2 arbuscular mycorrhizae fungi (AMF) for sweet potato, and 2 Trichoderma products for tomato were applied to determine their effect on yields and tomato late blight disease. The study was conducted in Ghana, Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda, but the treatments varied among the countries. The Rhizobia inoculants produced significant soybean or common bean yield increases in Ghana, Kenya, and Tanzania at p ≤ 0.05 when compared to the untreated control, and an economic analysis of the Ghanaian data found that Legumefix was profitable with a value–cost ratio of >3. There was significant spatial variability in crop yields (coefficients of variation: 37–64 %), indicating a need for further investigation to correct the limiting factors. The sweet potato response to AMF was variable across sites and seasons, and a significant response (p ≤ 0.05) was shown only under drought conditions in a soil with low organic matter content (1.2 %). The Trichoderma inoculants controlled late blight disease in tomatoes significantly better than Ridomil (p ≤ 0.05), a synthetic fungicide currently used by farmers in Kenya. Biological inoculants can therefore improve the productivity of the sub-Saharan Africa smallholder farming systems, and awareness of them should be created for relevant stakeholders to increase understanding and adoption of technologies for sustainable agricultural intensification.

Backyard poultry farming remains an essential livelihood and food security strategy in Kenya’s urban and peri-urban settings. However, productivity is constrained by limited access to modern technologies, inadequate knowledge, and weak market linkages. This study investigated the influence of technology adaptation on backyard poultry production in Embakasi East Constituency, Nairobi County. Using a descriptive mixed-method design, data were collected from 90 poultry farmers selected through purposive and cluster sampling. Quantitative data were analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS), while qualitative data were thematically analysed. Results revealed low levels of technology adoption, with respondents citing limited access to digital tools, inadequate training, and high costs of inputs. Farmers who had received basic technological training reported relatively higher productivity and improved disease control. The study concludes that access to relevant technology, training, and veterinary support significantly influences production efficiency in backyard poultry systems. It recommends integrated policy interventions, capacity building, and affordable innovations that are tailored to urban poultry farmers. Strengthening extension services and fostering digital inclusion could enhance both productivity and sustainability of backyard poultry farming in Kenya’s urban economy.

The introduction of organic farm management practices in sub-Saharan Africa could act as a lever for supporting regional sustainable development. In this study, we sought to assess the sustainability performance of organic (certified and non-certified) and non-organic farms in the dry Kajiado County and the wet Murang’a County in Kenya, based on four sustainability dimensions: Good Governance, Environmental Integrity, Economic Resilience and Social Well-Being. We collected household survey data from 400 smallholder farms, which were formally characterized into five types (mixed organic and conventional, certified organic, organic, conventional, and subsistence farms). We used multivariate analysis of variance, linear fixed-effects and general linear models to examine differences in sustainability performance. Model results indicate that all farms lack reliable farm management information and that only limited knowledge, skills and social security exist for farmers and farm workers. Comparison of the five farm types indicates no significant differences in their sustainability performance. Nonetheless, certified organic farms had better sustainability performance than non-certified farms due to higher economic resilience, environmental integrity, better support and training for workers. However, except for avoiding the use of agrochemicals in certified farms, there is relatively little difference in the farm management practices across farm types. Our results also indicate that farms in Murang’a were more sustainable than those in Kajiado due to better regional land-tenure security and conflict resolution mechanisms, soil and water conservation measures, and farm commercial viability. Nonetheless, unlike Kajiado, farms in Murang’a showed a tendency toward poor animal husbandry practices which affects overall animal welfare, limited credit uptake and market involvement. The results of this study can support decision making to identify appropriate interventions for improving sustainability in smallholder farms.

Sub-Saharan Africa is often presented as the continent most vulnerable to climatic change with major repercussions for food systems. Coupled with high rates of population growth, continued food insecurity and malnutrition, thus the need to enhance food production across the continent is seen as a major global imperative. We argue here, however, that current models of agricultural development in Eastern Africa frequently marginalise critical smallholder knowledge from the process of future agricultural design due to a lack of a methodological tools for engagement. This paper addresses this by outlining a potential means to capture and share locally produced agronomic information on a large scale. We report on a ‘Citizen Science’ pilot study that worked with smallholder farmers in Elgeyo-Marakwet County, Western Kenya, to co-design a mobile application using the well-developed Sapelli platform that easily allows farmers to identify, record and geolocate cropping patterns and challenges at multiple stages in the agricultural calendar using their own understanding. The pilot project demonstrated the technical and epistemological benefits of co-design, the abilities of smallholder farmers to co-design and use smartphone applications, and the potential for such technology to produce and share valuable agricultural and ecological knowledge in real time. Proof-of-concept data illustrates opportunities to spatially and temporally track and respond to challenges related to climate, crop disease and pests. Such work expounds how smallholder farmers are a source of largely untapped ecological and agronomic expert knowledge that can, and should, be harnessed to address issues of future agricultural resilience and food system sustainability.

Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench) is an under-utilized crop and one of the most important cereal crops in semi-arid tropics. In Kenya, sorghum is grown in the often drought-prone marginal agricultural areas of Eastern, Nyanza and Coast Provinces. Due to its C4 photosynthetic nature, extensive root system, waxy leaves and ability to stop growth in periods of drought the crop is well adapted to low lands that have higher temperatures, prone to drought and flooding. Sorghum, which is closely related to maize in utilization, therefore, could be an alternative staple food crop in arid areas prone to drought. As an indigenous Kenyan crop, sorghum could provide food security and become a suitable alternative in eastern Kenya. Despite its suitability in the semiarid areas, the area under sorghum production is still low and farmers attain low yields in eastern Kenya. Most farmers still opt to grow maize which is frequented by cropfailures. The purpose of this study was to gather information on socio-economic factors affecting sorghum production and the sorghum farming system used by the farmers in the region, landraces grown by farmers, source of seed, traits preference, maturity period, cultural practices, pre and post harvest handling, utilization and constraints in sorghum production in lower eastern Kenya region. The study was conducted in Mbeere, Kitui, Makueni and Mutomo districts of eastern Kenya.Parameters studied were expressed as percentages and bar graphs constructed. Analysis of Variance was performed, and Least Significant Differences were used for separation of means at 0.05 level of confidence. Sorghum is grown widely as source of food and seed for planting is obtained from informal systems. Farmers hardly use inputs due to low income. Eastern region is a high agricultural area and productivitycould be improved by use of locally available germplasm. The study found out that farmers in eastern Kenya maintain a diversity of sorghum landraces unique in their adaptation, food quality, grain yield, quality of harvested products and biotic stress resistance. Sorghum grain has high levels of iron and zinc, hence may be used to reduce micronutrient malnutrition. However, the production is low due to constraints such as lack of income to purchase fertilizer and chemicals, inadequate quality seed, susceptibility to pests and diseases resulting to low yields. Key words : food security, seed quality, sorghum

In December 2007, civil disruption and violence erupted in Kenya following national elections, displacing 350,000 people and affecting supply chains and services. The Kenyan government and partners were interested in assessing the extent of disruption in essential health services, especially HIV treatment. A two-stage cluster sampling for patients taking antiretroviral therapy (ART) was implemented ten weeks after elections, March 10-21, 2008, at twelve health facilities providing ART randomly selected in each of the three provinces most affected by post-election disruption-Rift Valley, Nyanza, and Central Provinces. Convenience samples of patients with tuberculosis, hypertension, or diabetes were also interviewed from the same facilities. Finally, a convenience sampling of internally displaced persons (IDPs) in the three provinces was conducted. Three hundred thirty-six IDPs in nine camps and 1,294 patients in 35 health facilities were interviewed. Overall, nine percent of patients reported having not returned to their routine health care facility; 9%-25% (overall 16%) reported a temporary inability for themselves or their children to access care at some point during January-February 2008. Less than 15% of patients on long-term therapies for HIV, tuberculosis, diabetes, or hypertension had treatment interruptions compared with 2007. The proportion of tuberculosis patients receiving a ≥45-day supply of medication increased from five percent in November 2007 to 69% in December 2007. HIV testing decreased in January 2008 compared with November 2007 among women in labor wards and among persons tested through voluntary counseling and testing services in Nyanza and Rift Valley Provinces. Patients and their family members witnessed violence, especially in Nyanza and Rift Valley Provinces (54%-59%), but few patients (2.5%-14%, 10% overall) personally experienced violence. More IDPs reported witnessing (80%) or personally experiencing (38%) violence than did patients. About half of patients and three-quarters of IDPs interviewed had anxiety or depression symptoms during the four weeks before the assessment. There was no association among patients between the presence of HIV, tuberculosis, diabetes, and hypertension and the prevalence of anxiety or depression symptoms. More than 85% of patients in highly affected provinces avoided treatment interruptions; this may be in part related to practitioners anticipating potential disruption and providing patients with medications for an extended period. During periods of similar crisis, anticipating potential limitations on medication access and increased mental health needs could potentially prevent negative health impacts.

KENYA. Ministry of Agriculture, in co-operation with the German Agricultural Team of the German Agency for Technical Cooperation (GTZ). Farm Management handbook of Kenya. Nairobi, The Ministry, 5 volumes, of which vols. II & III are each in 3 separate parts: Vol. II Natural conditions and Farm Management Information West Kenya A. (Nyanza and Western Provinces), 397 p., maps & figs, (some in colour), tables, coloured map in back folder, 1982; B. Central Kenya (Rift Valley and Central Provinces), 739 p., maps & figs, (some in colour), tables, 1983; C. East Kenya (Eastern and Coast Provinces), 411 p., maps and figs, (some in colour), tables, 1983. - Volume 42