A loss of fecundity in a population of mudsnails Hydrobia ventrosa caused by larval trematodes does not measurably affect host population equilibrium level

Histopathological effects of larval trematode infections in mudsnails and their impact on host growth: what causes gigantism in Hydrobia ventrosa (Gastropoda: Prosobranchia)?

Schistosomiasis is a major public health problem that afflicts more than 240 million individuals globally, particularly in poor communities. Treatment of schistosomiasis relies heavily on a single oral drug, praziquantel, and there is interest in the search for new antischistosomal drugs. This study reports the anthelmintic evaluation of carvacryl acetate, a derivative of the terpene carvacrol, against Schistosoma mansoni ex vivo and in a schistosomiasis animal model harboring either adult (patent infection) or juvenile (prepatent infection) parasites. For comparison, data obtained with gold standard antischistosomal drug praziquantel are also presented. Initially in vitro effective concentrations of 50% (EC50) and 90% (EC90) were determined against larval and adult stages of S. mansoni. In an animal with patent infection, a single oral dose of carvacryl acetate (100, 200, or 400mg/kg) caused a significant reduction in worm burden (30-40%). S. mansoni egg production, a process responsible for both life cycle and pathogenesis, was also markedly reduced (70-80%). Similar to praziquantel, carvacryl acetate 400mg/kg had low efficacy in pre-patent infection. In tandem, although carvacryl acetate had interesting in vitro schistosomicidal activity, the compound exhibited low efficacy in terms of reduction of worm load in S. mansoni-infected mice.

Parasites have been shown to reduce host density and to induce host population extinction in some cases but not in others. Epidemiological models suggest that variable effects of parasites on individual hosts can explain this variability on the population level. Here, we aim to support this hypothesis with a specific epidemiological model using a cross-parasite species approach. We compared the effect of six parasites on host fecundity and survival to their effects on density and risk of extinction of clonal host populations. We contrast our empirical results of population density with predictions from a deterministic model and contrast our empirical results of host and parasite extinction rates with those predicted by a stochastic model. Five horizontally transmitted microparasites (two bacteria: white bacterial disease, Pasteuria ramosa; two microsporidia: Glugoides intestinalis, Ordospora colligata; one fungus: Metschnikowiella biscuspidata); and six strains of a vertically transmitted microsporidium (Flabelliforma magnivora) of the planktonic crustacean Daphnia magna were used. In life table experiments, we quantified fecundity and survival in individual parasitized and healthy hosts and compared these with the effect of the parasites on host population density and on the likelihood of host population extinction in microcosm populations. Parasite species varied strongly in their effects on host fecundity, host survival, host density reduction, and the frequency with which they drove host populations to extinction. The fewer offspring an infected host produced, the lower the density of an infected host population. This effect on host density was relatively stronger for the vertically transmitted parasite strains than for the horizontally transmitted parasites. As predicted by the stochastic simulations, strong effects of a parasite on individual host survival and fecundity increased the risk of host population extinction. The same was true for parasite extinctions. Our results have implications for the use of microparasites in biological control programs and for the role parasites play in driving small populations to extinction.

Temporal variations in the prevalence of larval trematodes in the short-lived prosobranch mudsnail Hydrobia ventrosa (Montagu) were investigated in relation to host life history and season for 4 successive years in temperate windflats of the southern Baltic Sea. The component community of trematode larvae in H. ventrosa comprises at least 10 species; families (and species) represented include Notocotylidae (1), Echinostomatidae (1 or 2), Heterophyidae (2), Monorchidae (1), Microphallidae (3 or 4), Psilostomatidae (1), and Hemiuridae (1). The notocotylid Paramonostomum alveatum was the most prevalent species, followed by the microphallids Maritrema subdolum and Microphallus sp. Trematode prevalence in H. ventrosa fluctuated seasonally. Prevalence usually peaked in summer between July and September-October and decreased in late winter-early spring. This seasonal change is chiefly explained by the life history patterns of the semelparous snail host. Hydrobia ventrosa has a maximum life span of about 2 yr and reproduces between June and November of its second calendar year. The first trematode infections appeared annually in May when the most abundant cohort of H. ventrosa, the second-calendar-year snails, mature. The prevalence continued to increase until August-September, throughout the reproductive period of the second-calendar-year snails, Prevalence decreased during winter, when most of the second-calendar-year snails died after reproduction. On the basis of longterm laboratory experiments, it has been shown that the late autumn-winter mortality was not the result of trematode infections. Seasonal patterns of prevalence were similar among the trematode species except for the monorchid Asymphylodora demeli, the only one using fish definitive hosts. Species-specific differences in the seasonal occurrence of prepatent infections and the predominance of certain larval stages in winter are interpreted as different strategies of the trematode species to survive the harsh winter conditions, or to survive the death of the first intermediate host in autumn-winter, or both.

Wolbachia

Cladocerans (Daphnia obtusa) in seasonal ponds in southeast Texas are infected with a trematode parasite (n. sp.). Infestation rate varies considerably among ponds and years, and among ponds within years. The parasite is rare in individuals <1.00 mm long but is common in individuals 1.25–1.75 mm long. The parasite has no effect on whether females become gravid. Although there is a significant correlation between length and egg production for unparasitized females, this is not the case for parasitized individuals. An infection of 1–2 parasites does not aflect fecundity; however, greater infections are correlated with reduced egg production. Another cost to Daphnia of harboring the parasite is reduced survivorship, particularly among larger individuals. As these individuals have the capacity to produce more eggs than smaller individuals, it is likely that the parasite also causes a reduction in lifetime reproduction in addition to that in any one reproductive episode.

Since praziquantel is the only drug available to treat schistosomiasis, a neglected parasitic disease that affects more than 240 million people worldwide, there is an urgent demand for new antischistosomal agents. Natural compound-loaded nanoparticles have recently emerged as a promising alternative for the treatment of schistosomiasis. Carvacrol is an antimicrobial monoterpene present in the essential oil extracted from several plants, especially oregano (Origanum vulgare). In this study, a carvacrol nanoemulsion (CVNE) was prepared, characterized, and administered orally (200 mg/kg) in a mouse infected with either immature (prepatent infection) or adult (patent infection) Schistosoma mansoni. For comparison, data obtained with an unloaded nanoemulsion (blank formulation), free carvacrol, and the drug of reference praziquantel are also presented. CVNE was more effective than free carvacrol in reducing the worm burden and egg production in both patent and prepatent infections. Favorably, CVNE had a high effect in terms of reducing the number of worms and eggs (85%–90%) compared with praziquantel (∼30%) in prepatent infection. In tandem, carvacrol-loaded nanoemulsion markedly improved antischistosomal activity, showing efficiency in reducing worm and egg burden, and thus it may be a promising delivery system for the treatment of schistosomiasis.

The evolution and ecology of consistent behavioural variation, or personality, is currently the focus of much attention in natural populations. Associations between personality traits and parasite infections are increasingly being reported, but the extent to which multiple behavioural traits might be associated with parasitism at the same time is largely unknown. Here, we use a population of great tits, Parus major, to examine whether infection by avian malaria (Plasmodium and Leucocytozoon) is associated with three behavioural traits assayed under standardized conditions. All of these traits are of broad ecological significance and two of them are repeatable or heritable in our population. Here, we show weak correlations between some but not all of these behavioural traits, and sex-dependent associations between all three behavioural traits and parasite infection. Infected males showed increased problem-solving performance whereas infected females showed reduced performance; furthermore, uninfected females were four times more likely to solve problems than uninfected males. Infected females were more exploratory than uninfected females, but infection had no effect on males. Finally, infected males were more risk-averse than uninfected males but females were unaffected. Our results demonstrate the potential for complex interactions between consistent personality variation and parasite infection, though we discuss the difficulty of attributing causality in these associations. Accounting for complex parasite-behaviour associations may prove essential in understanding the evolutionary ecology of behavioural variation and the dynamics of host–parasite interactions.

To optimise host-to-host transmission, digenean trematodes (parasites) synchronise their cercarial emission patterns with the aquatic activities of their vertebrate hosts. Schistosoma mansoni has two different circadian chronotypes: a diurnal shedding pattern with a mean peak occurring at 11:00h, and a nocturnal shedding pattern with a mean peak occurring at 20:00h. We analysed the life-history variations between these two chronotypes at the levels of the parasite and its hosts. For each chronotype, we quantified three life-history traits related to the parasite (prepatent period, infection rate and cercarial production) and analysed the morphometry and the morphology of the parasite eggs; we also quantified three life-history traits related to the snail intermediate host (shell diameter, fecundity and survival rate) and one life-history trait related to the experimental definitive host (survival rate). A phylogeny based on the mitochondrial cytochrome-oxidase gene was made on samples of both chronotypes. Life-history analysis revealed significant variations between the two chronotypes. Life-history traits were optimal for both the parasite and the snail host for the diurnal chronotype compared to the nocturnal one. The new chronotype behaved like an allopatric population towards its snail host. Phylogenetic analysis supports the hypothesis of a lateral transfer of S.mansoni from humans to Rattus rattus. These results were interpreted in terms of an ongoing sympatric speciation. The nocturnal chronotype of S.mansoni showed non-adapted life-history traits in its relation with the snail intermediate host Biomphalaria pfeifferi. The emergence of this new phenotype is probably linked to divergent natural selection.

High-melting explosive (HMX; octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine) is a widely utilized explosive component of munitions used by the military. Consequently, production and use through testing and training at military installations has resulted in deposition of HMX in soil. Since these areas are often used by birds, the oral toxicity of HMX exposure to northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) was evaluated. Attempts to determine the acute lethal dose were unsuccessful. Initially, 8 birds (1 male/1 female per dose group) were orally dosed at levels ranging from 125 to 2125 mg HMX/kg body weight. A single death at the midrange resulted in subsequent trials of oral doses up to 10,760 mg/kg body weight. Only a single death occurred at 7173 mg/kg. A subsequent 28-d feeding study was then conducted to evaluate the potential for toxicity resulting from repetitive oral exposures. Northern bobwhite were exposed to concentrations of HMX in feed of either 10000, 1000, 100, or 0 mg/kg. These exposures resulted in a clear concentration-related reduction in feed consumption and body mass. Reductions in egg production in females were correlated with changes in body mass and feed consumption. Other physiological indicators were consistent with a considerable reduction in feed intake. These results suggest that HMX concentration is responsible for intense feed aversion behavior and thus not likely a factor that would appreciably contribute to risk for wild birds at military ranges. The views expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views and policies of the U.S. Army. Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use. We thank Dr. Alan Rosencrance from the U.S. Army Center for Environmental Health Research and Scott Reppert of Alliant Techsystems Inc. for the refined HMX stock. This work was funded by the U.S. Army Environmental Quality Technology Program.

The specific serum IgG1, IgG4, and IgE responses to Dracunculus medinensis and the level of total IgE of individuals living in a highly endemic area of northern Ghana were measured by ELISA. Sera were obtained in the high transmission season from individuals with prepatent, patent, or postpatent infection as well as from individuals from the same endemic area who claimed to have never had a patent infection (i.e., endemic normal individuals). Individuals with prepatent or postpatent infections responded with a significantly lower mean level of specific IgG1 and IgG4 compared with individuals with a patent infection, and with a significantly higher mean level of specific IgG1 and IgG4 compared with endemic normal individuals. For specific IgE, no differences were found in the mean antibody level between the infection status categories. Individuals with a patent infection had a significantly lower mean serum level of total IgE compared with prepatent, postpatent, and endemic normal individuals. Endemic normal individuals had the highest mean level of total IgE. Furthermore, in all clinical categories, high responders for specific IgG1 and IgG4 generally had low levels of total IgE, whereas low responders for specific IgG1 and IgG4 generally had high levels of total IgE. A similar dichotomy, although less distinct, was observed between specific IgG1 and IgG4 on the one hand and specific IgE on the other. Thus, similar to what has been suggested for schistosomiasis and lymphatic filariasis, the relationship between the IgG subclasses and IgE appears to play a role in, or at least to reflect, a mechanism for protective immunity in dracunculiasis.

Freshwater is necessary not only for drinking for humans and animals but also for agricultural and industrial purposes. If diverse snails (gastropods) and crabs or crayfish (crustaceans) are found in both these water bodies, various dangerous trematodiases caused by infection with trematode parasites may also be possible in humans and animals. In fact, these invertebrate species act as carriers or vectors of these parasitic diseases. In wild ruminants like antelopes and deer, the most common trematodiases are fascioliasis, amphistomiasis, paramphistomiasis, and schistosomiasis while in wild carnivores like lions and tigers, the most common trematodisis are paragonimiasis. These diseases are caused by infection with trematode (fluke) parasites Fasciola spp., Amphistomum spp., Paramphistomum spp., Schistosome spp., and Paragonimus westermani. These parasitic diseases are more dangerous and fatal to wildlife. The incidence of these parasitic diseases varies greatly from region to region and according to the animal species. However, these diseases are more prevalent in wild herbivores than carnivores and the peak infection of trematode parasites generally occurs after the monsoon and before winter. Though infection with these parasites may occur throughout the year. Trematodiasis not only causes ill health in wild animals but also reduces their population. Many times, outbreaks of these diseases also result in death of many wild animals. In fact, freshwater sources that contain various species of snails and crabs infected with trematode larvae are not at all safe for wildlife in terms of trematodiasis. Therefore, more research survey studies are needed from time to time on different species of wildlife living in different ecosystems of the country to find out the current status of these diseases. The results of these studies are useful not only in health policy making but also in the prevention and control of these diseases in wildlife in India. Although these diseases are treatable and effective drugs are also available for them, yet, awareness, vigilance, and regular monitoring are necessary

Populations of hydrobiid snails and their larval trematode parasites in salt marsh along the Skidaway River were studied to determine their distribution. Additionally, the prevalence of larval trematodes infecting the snails was examined to investigate definitive host distribution patterns on the Skidaway River and to identify sites for future studies on second intermediate host susceptibility to trematode infection. To do so, surface sediment and vegetation were collected at low tide from 0.5-m2 quadrats along 20 vertical transects beginning in high marsh at the forest edge and salt meadow, passing through high, medium, and low Spartina alterniflora zones, and ending in the low marsh at creekbed level. Samples were filtered through sieves to concentrate snails, which were then counted and identified. Two species of hydrobiid snails, Spurwinkia salsa (4201 specimens) and Onobops jacksoni (136 specimens) were collected. Hydrobiid snails were found in sediments and on plant stems throughout the S. alterniflora zones, and snail density was greatest in the higher Spartina zones. Sediments from the 3 Spartina zones differed with respect to percent sand, but not percent silt or clay. Salinity and chlorophyll-a levels did not differ between the 3 Spartina zones, and there was no relationship between hydrobiid abundance and the abundance of other snail species. The mean prevalence of trematode infection in S. salsa and O. jacksoni snails was 5.5% and 7.5%, respectively. Snails were infected most commonly with either an oculate monostome, possibly the heterophyid Phagicola diminuta, or 2 types of xiphidiocercariae, one of which likely includes the microphallid Microphallus turgidus. No infected snails were found in over half of the collection sites, and the distribution of infected snails was patchy and unpredictable.

In the present study the dynamics of antigenemia and coproantigens were studied in patients with Fasciola hepatica infection during an outbreak occurring in La Palma, Pinar del Río, in the West Province of Cuba. Stool and serum samples were collected from 67 patients and 40 healthy subjects. Stool samples were studied by a simple gravity sedimentation technique and an ES78 sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for observation of eggs and detection of parasite coproantigens, respectively. Serum samples were also studied by the ES78 sandwich ELISA and an indirect ELISA to detect circulating antigens and antibodies, respectively. At the beginning of the study, 8 of 67 patients had patent infections and 59 had prepatent infections, which was determined by the recent consumption of lettuce contaminated with metacercariae of F. hepatica, the presence of clinical symptoms, and the absence of Fasciola eggs in their stools. Patients with prepatent infections were monitored by all techniques until patency. Circulating antigens were not detected in patients with patent infections. However, coproantigens were clearly detected in all patients with patent infections. On the other hand, 28.8% of patients with prepatent infections tested positive for circulating antigens and 81.4% tested positive for coproantigens in the first stool sample studied. Only two other coproantigen determinations were necessary to diagnose 93.2% of the patients. While circulating antigen levels diminished in all patients during the infection, coproantigen levels increased. The present study demonstrates that the ES78 sandwich ELISA is a better tool than parasitological examination for diagnosis of active early infection, since by the combination of the circulating-antigen detection assay and the coproantigen detection assay 91% of patients were able to be diagnosed at the beginning of the study. In contrast, a coprologic analysis repeated over several weeks was necessary to diagnose 100% of the patients.

Host-parasite interactions may lead to a variety of outcomes. Trematode infection of pulmonate snails is often associated with increased growth and/or survivorship of snail hosts. We use the freshwater pulmonate Lymnaea elodes and its trematode parasites to test whether this increase is a parasite adaptation, a host adaptation, or a side effect that serves no adaptive function for either participant. Field experiments indicate that trematode parasitism significantly reduces host fecundity and causes a temporary elevation and subsequent reduction in host growth. A 2-yr field survey of the prevalence of trematode infection in three snail populations revealed a significant positive relationship between shell size and prevalence. Apparently, L. elodes does not outlive its trematode infections. When survey data are compared with theoretical curves generated from a simple model of the system, it appears that trematode parasitism increases the survivorship of infected snails. Overall, the results suggest that increased survivorship in trematode-infected L. elodes is a parasite strategy for providing a stable, longterm resource for the parasite.