A look at learning strategies employed by outstanding English learners: a systematic literature review

Despite the existence of multiple studies on language learning strategies (LLS), a majority of these studies have been conducted using exclusively quantitative methods. Furthermore, previous studies reveal inconsistent results in the LLS used by English learners in accordance with the context of the studies. In response to these gaps, the current study adopts a systematic literature review (SLR) approach to explore LLS employed by English learners in higher education contexts. The findings indicated that English learners tend to choose metacognitive strategies rather than other LLS classification. In addition, the findings showed that scholars mostly used adopted strategy inventory for language learning (SILL) for their research instrument, little study conducted through SILL modification. Thus, this review provides gaps for further research.

This review aimed to analyse previous studies that analysed the use of vocabulary learning strategies (VLS) in learning English as a second language (ESL). The articles included in this review were chosen to understand and explore language learning strategies (LLS), definitions of LLS and its classifications, VLS, definitions of VLS, and its taxonomies, past studies on using VLS in learning ESL, and how good language learners are associated with the use of VLS. Past studies reviewed explored the use of VLS in both formal and informal context, and the learning of VLS both intentionally and incidentally. The findings showed that ESL learners’ vocabulary was found to be greatly enhanced by the use of strategies, thus highlighting the significance of vocabulary for language proficiency. As for good language learners, they utilized VLS to further enhance their vocabulary acquisition. This review concluded by presenting several research gaps identified in the past studies. It was found that the use of VLS in learning ESL and by good ESL learners are less explored by researchers. Moreover, there seems to be a paucity of studies on training models of LLS. With this review, it is anticipated that future research could look into the identified research gaps and conduct research based on the use of VLS in learning ESL, the relationship between VLS and good language learners, and the effectiveness of training models of LLS that can also be used to train VLS to ESL learners.

The study aimed to investigate the role of strategy in foreign language learning, including students’ English learning behaviors, factors affecting students’ language learning strategy use, strategies that good and poor language learners used, and to compare with that of learners of FL, ESL, and EFL. Two hundred and twenty-four Taiwanese college students served as subjects of the study. The research design was a descriptive study and the research instrument was a questionnaire of motivation, belief, strategy, and anxiety. All available data were computed by using SPSS. Findings revealed that strategy use was the best predictor of successful language learning and motivational intensity played the most significant role in influencing strategy use. In addition, good language learners used more strategies and differences of strategy use existed among learners of FL, ESL, and EFL. It’s hoped to raise general awareness of language learning strategies and to bear in mind the individual difference of learners for effective teaching and learning.

The relationship between language learning strategies, proficiency, age and self-efficacy beliefs: A study of language learners in Botswana

Language Learning Strategies (LLSs) are important in learning a language especially in learning second and foreign language. Many studies on LLSs have been conducted by scholars around the world that prove the significant impact of employing LLSs in acquiring a second language. In Malaysia, English is regarded as a second language and learnt formally in school as an academic subject from 7 to 17 years old. This paper aims to investigate LLSs used by ESL learners who are artistically talented in an art school. This study is a survey and the data were gathered by administering the Strategy Inventory Language Learning (SILL) questionnaire by Oxford (1990). The questionnaire was given to 77 pupils who are 16 and 17 years old. They study in an art school in Malaysia and they have different talents in arts. They are considered as artistically talented to be enrolled in art school. The data were analysed descriptively. The finding shows that the most employed LLSs by art school ESL learners areMetacognitive Strategy and the least employed LLSs are Compensation Strategy. Most ESL learners in Malaysia are very dependent on teachers and have difficulty in achieving a certain level of fluency. They are not aware of their self-ability to govern self-learning. That is why LLS is very important as it effectively improves learners’ proficiency in acquiring the second language. Both teachers and pupils need to be aware of the learners’ ability and preference in choosing suitable LLSs. Since most of the previous researches focus on successful and good language learner, more studies need to be carried out to help and guide less successful learners to be at the same par as a good language learner.

Research in the field of second language learning indicates that proper use of language learning strategies leads to the improvement of overall Second Language (L2) or Foreign Language (FL) proficiency as well as specific language skills. This essay firstly attempts to build a theoretical framework of learning strategies theories by clarifying the definitions and categories of learning strategies, discussing the relevant factors influencing strategy choice, while making references to the status quo in China; then it looks at what some learners do that makes them ‘good language learners’; finally, some preparatory work is suggested as a start for undertaking learner training in EFL (English as a Foreign Language) classrooms.

Abstract: This article assesses the language learning strategies (LLSs) used by 194 high school and 184 university English-as-a-foreign-language (EFL) learners in Palestine, using Oxford's (1990) Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL). It also explores the effect of language proficiency and gender on frequency of strategy use. The findings show that proficiency level and gender have a main effect on overall strategy use, but their effects on the use of each of the six categories of strategies and individual strategies are variable. The findings have significant implications for research on LLSs, classroom instruction, materials design, and teacher preparation. Introduction It is not uncommon to hear complaints voiced by second language (L2) teachers and educators about the unsatisfactory language performance of L2 learners. These complaints have motivated applied researchers in the field of L2 learning and teaching to try to diagnose the causes of this problem and recommend remedies. Until the 1970s, the majority of L2 research focused on the evaluation of competing teaching methods and instructional materials. However, since the early 1970s, great emphasis has been placed on the investigation of social, psychological, and affective variables that enhance or hamper L2 success and achievement. Among these variables are: motivation, attitudes, personality, learning styles, and learning strategies. Research, in general, has provided evidence that these variables correlate with success in L2 learning (see Dornyei, 1990; Ehrman & Oxford, 1990; Oxford & Cohen, 1992; Peng, 2001). The observations made by L2 researchers about the differences in learning among L2 learners have motivated second language acquisition (SLA) researchers to explore the sources of these differences with the objective of providing instruction that facilitates learning. These differences were identified by researchers who tried to describe the characteristics of the language learner. Chamot (1987), Naiman, Frohlich, Stern, and Todesco (1978), Rubin (1975), Stern (1975), and Stevick (1989) identified the strategies that successful language learners employ to facilitate learning the L2. For example, Rubin (1975) stated that the good language learner is a willing and accurate guesser, has a strong motivation to communicate, is often not inhibited, is prepared to attend to form, practices, monitors his own speech and the speech of others, and attends to meaning. On the basis of the findings of the above-mentioned studies, it was hypothesized that if less successful learners are taught how to use these types of strategies (i.e., if they learn how to learn), they become more effective and independent learners. The description of the strategies used by successful language learners provided a stimulus for further research into the establishment of taxonomies of language learning strategies (LLSs). O'Malley and Chamot (1990) divided LLSs into three major types: cognitive, metacognitive, and social-affective. Oxford (1990), on the other hand, classified LLSs into six broad categories, namely memory, cognitive, compensatory, metacognitive, affective, and social. She defined LLSs as specific actions taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more selfdirected, more effective, and more transferable to new situations. (p. 8). Because the present study uses Oxford's taxonomy to assess LLSs used by Palestinian English-as-a-foreign-language (EFL) learners, it will be described in more detail. The selection of this taxonomy has been made on two grounds. First, it has been used to assess strategy use by EFL/English-as-second-language (ESL) learners from a large and varied group of language and cultural backgrounds (e.g., Arabic: Touba, 1992; Chinese: Chang, 1990; Hispanic: Green, 1991; Japanese: Watanabe, 1990). Second, its reliability and validity have been widely documented (see Oxford, 1992). …

Employing language learning strategies will lead to greater language communication ability and academic achievement. Even though studies on language learning strategies have been conducted over the years, it is still crucial to look at individual factors affecting the choice of language learning strategies used among the learners. Gender and language proficiency of learners are two prominent variables influencing the use of language learning strategies in learning English as a second language (ESL). Thus, this study aims to identify the interaction effects between gender and language proficiency of 1699 first-year undergraduates in utilising language learning strategies in learning the English language through a self-reported survey using an adapted version of the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) (Oxford, 1990) in a Malaysian public university. Findings revealed that the ESL learners were found to use the language learning strategies in an average manner irrespective of their gender and language proficiency. Data analysis through two-way ANOVA revealed a significant interaction between gender and learner’s language proficiency in utilising effective strategies. The differential effects of these two independent variables on affective strategies were further investigated through their simple effects and Tukey’s HSD tests. These tests revealed that female average achievers differed significantly in employing effective strategies compared to male average achievers. This study implied that investigating the employment of language learning strategies in various contexts is worthwhile, as well as incorporating mixed method research for richer data. Keywords: Gender, language proficiency, ESL learners, affective strategies, achievers.

This study was conducted at Department of English, Faculty of Education, Champasack University aiming to investigate the situations of students’ learning styles preference and strategies used and to examine the significances between language learning styles, learning strategies and base on their gander. The 180 students were selected equally; 90 males and 90 females by mixed methods sampling strategies techniques systematically. The perceptional-questionnaire was applied by using the 70-item with five Likert scales and related structured-interview was also conducted with 20 students. The questionnaire’ pilot reliability was found at 0.75 Alpha values of acceptable. The data analysis was analyzed by statistical independent t-test, Pearson Correlation, Mean scores and Standard deviation of each item calculating accordantly with the responded scores. The findings of the study revealed that the kinesthetic learning style was the most preferred. Closely found, visual, auditory and group learning styles accordingly related. Moreover, the meta-cognitive, compensatory and cognitive strategies were the most often frequency strategies used and relatively used by memory-related and social strategies. To examine gender’s perception towards learning styles and learning strategies; there were statistically significant differences between males and females in auditory, kinesthetic, tactile, individual and group learning styles and there were statistically significant differences between males and females in memory-related, cognitive, affective and social strategies. Final results were also proved that ‘Language learning styles’ had almost significantly correlated with the ‘Language learning strategies’.

This paper reports the findings of a small-scale research project focusing upon learning strategies employed by six Year 9 ‘good language learners’ in two mainstream secondary schools in Southampton. The pupils completed language learning tasks and semi-structured interviews were conducted to elicit pupil use of metacognitive and cognitive learning strategies. In addition, teachers were interviewed informally concerning their views on language learning strategies. The data is analysed and used to profile a range of strategies used by ‘good language learners’ and to suggest implications for the National Curriculum for Modern Foreign Languages as well as teaching materials and methodology.

Many studies have been conducted to explore language learning strategies (Rubin, 1975, Naiman et.al., 1978; Fillmore, 1979; O'Malley et.al.,1985 and 1990; Politzer and Groarty, 1985; Prokop, 1989; Oxford, 1990; and Wenden, 1991). In the current study a total of 79 university students participating in a 3- month English course participated. This study attempted to explore what language learning strategies successful learners used and to what extent the strategies contributed to success in learning English in Indonesia. Factor analyses, accounting for 62.1%, 56.0%, 41.1% and 43.5% of the varianceof speaking, listening, reading and writing measures in the language learningstrategy questionnaire, suggested that the questionnaire constituted threeconstructs. The three constructs were named metacognitive strategies, deep level cognitive and surface level cognitive strategies. Regression analyses, performed using scales based on these factors revealed significant main effects for the use of the language learning strategies in learning English, constituting 43% of the variance in the posttest English achievement scores. An analysis of variance of the gain scores of the highest, middle, and the lowest groups of performers suggested a greater use of metacognitive strategies among successful learners and a greater use of surface level cognitive strategies among unsuccessful learners. Implications for the classroom and future re-search are also discussed.

How the students deal with their learning strategies has been investigated in the last few decades. The main points in this article focused on the profile of learning strategies used by the students of SMA N 16 Samarinda in the academic year 2020/ 2021 from the tenth to twelfth grade in learning English as a foreign language, gender, and motivation types. This study is quantitative research. The data was taken from two main questionnaires: SILL and motivation questionnaire. In analyzing the data, SPSS version 26 was used in this study. The number of participants was 99 students that consisting of 41 males and 58 females. The finding in this study found that the participants mostly used metacognitive strategies in their language learning and cognitive strategies were the least used. There was no significant difference between LLS usage with gender. Students’ intrinsic and intrinsic motivation play a significant role in their interest in learning English as a foreign language.

In the 30 years since Rubin's (1975) article in TESOL Quarterly brought “language learning strategies” to a wide audience, the concept of language learning strategy has been notoriously difficult to define. It has been described as “elusive” (Wenden, 1991, p. 7), “fuzzy” (Ellis,1994, p. 529) and “fluid” (Gu, 2005, p. 2). Rubin (1975, p. 43) defined language learning strategies as “the techniques or devices which a learner may use to acquire knowledge,” and she constructed a list of strategies typical of good language learners. Stern (1975) also published an article on the strategies used by good language learners, among which he included “a personal learning style” (p. 316). The confusion evident even at this early stagein language learning strategy research between basic concepts such as style and strategy has contributed to the difficulties with definition which remain to the present day.

This study investigated to what extent learners’ beliefs about language learning strategies (LLS) are subject to change as they are taken through a process of reflection. Three research questions were addressed: the profile of language learning strategies of the students, the nature of strategy use and belief about LLS and how the change of belief about LLS occurred. The study employed a minor quantitative measurement and qualitative analysis of the data. Findings at the beginning of the study are compared with the findings at the end of the study after the reflection procedure was implemented. The reflection was meant to provide time for the students to contemplate, and critically evaluate, their strategy use with regard to their English learning process. Twelve students participated in this study. Three types of data collection techniques were utilized to gather the data: survey, interview, and reflective journal writing. The Strategy Inventory of Language Learning (SILL), developed by Oxford (1990) was used to collect data about the students’ current learning strategies. In-depth interviews about their learning experiences with reference to their language learning approaches were also employed not only to compare with the survey results but also to enrich the data needed for deep analysis. The last instrument was the reflective learning journal. Journals were assigned to all the students in all macro-skill subjects to explore their experiences regarding their language learning journey by documenting their success and failure stories. All these data were triangulated for verification and analysed accordingly to respond to the research questions. The findings indicate that before reflection in general the students were moderate users of the English learning strategies as formulated in the SILL. In terms of categories, metacognitive categories were the most frequently used strategies suggesting that, as adult language learners, the students were familiar with the strategies of planning, monitoring and evaluating their learning. However, they did not exploit their emotion sufficiently to facilitate their learning, as indicated by their affective strategies being the least frequently used categories. After the intervention of reflection, the frequency use of the strategies increased across categories the with the metacognitive strategy category remaining the most frequently used. Also there was a shift in the least frequently used categories from affective strategies to memory strategies. This finding weakened the popular claim that memory strategies were the most popular strategies` among Asian EFL learners. This finding also serves as evidence that reflection is among the determinants of the improved frequency use of learning strategies. This study shows that all of the students preferred collaborative learning especially in verbal skills, suggesting that this finding corroborates Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development and social learning. The fact that the students had different levels of English proficiency allowed them to learn from one another through their social interaction in which some students became the learners, and some others became the “More Knowledgeable Others”, that is, other than the teachers. This finding was confirmed with data collected from the SILL survey which found a high level of frequency in the use of social strategy categories. Linguistic and non-linguistic problems were also identified, as encountered by the students. The problem of limited vocabularies and limited knowledge of grammar impeded them from active participation in verbal and written practices as these weaknesses made them feel anxious and afraid of making mistakes. Lack of self-confidence and lack of motivation as a result of low English competence were reported. These factors prevented them from active involvement in learning activities as they caused them to feel shy and lazy. With regard to the learners’ beliefs, it was found that the students held strong beliefs about the importance of language practice, the use of learning strategies, the significance of vocabulary and grammar, and error-correction. All of them believe that practice in language learning is a must suggesting that without language practice learning would not happen. Most of the students also believe in the effectiveness of their use of learning strategies based on their learning experience. Students also claimed that vocabulary and grammar are fundamental in English language learning suggesting that they would give top priority to learning these components. Finally, they had a strong conviction that making errors is normal in language learning and that it is part of the learning process. Therefore, they were happy for any corrections if they made mistakes. In connection with belief change, this study found factors affecting belief change also included: self-esteem, self-confidence, motivation, mindset and conception of language and language learning. In conclusion, this study has implications for EFL pedagogical practices and for further studies in the field of learners’ beliefs.

Introduction Student use of second language learning strategies – conscious or unconscious methods of helping and accelerating learning – has received a considerable amount of attention in the twenty years or so since Rubin's influential 1975 article on the ‘Good language learner’ called for research in the area. Oxford and Burry-Stock (1995: 4) report that 40 to 50 studies (many unpublished) involving more than 8,000 learners have been done using the prime data-collection instrument on strategy use, Oxford's SILL (Strategy Inventory for Language Learning, 1990), alone. Many of these studies have found strong links between strategy use and target-language proficiency, and this has increased interest in the topic of what strategies are used by better learners. Cohen (1998: 4) defines second language learning strategies as processes consciously chosen by students that result in action ‘taken to enhance the learning or use of a second language … through storage, retention, recall, and application’. Oxford, in her SILL, divides the 50 common strategies on the questionnaire into six categories, as follows (the complete list of strategies can be seen in Oxford, 1990): Memory (remembering more effectively), e.g. ‘I review English lessons often.’ Cognitive (using all your mental processes), e.g. ‘I use the English words I know in different ways.’ Compensation (compensating for missing knowledge), e.g. ‘To understand unfamiliar English words, I make guesses.’ Metacognitive (organising and evaluating learning), e.g. ‘I plan my schedule so I will have enough time to study English.’ Affective (managing emotions), e.g. ‘I try to relax whenever I feel afraid of using English‘ Social (learning with others), e.g. ‘I practise English with other students’