A Lefebvrian perspective on the abstraction of space-time in urban street experiments

In comparing these two types of violence only one aspect of structural violence will be discussed here: that which kills, although slowly, and undramatically from the point of view of direct violence. It should be kept in mind that there are very many other very different types of structural violence. In order to compare violence that kills slowly and violence that kills quickly, violence that is anonymous and violence that has an author, there has to be a common unit. Direct violence is usually measured in number of deaths. One could approach structural violence in the same way, looking at e.g. the number of avoidable deaths that occur because medical and sanitary resources are concentrated in the upper classes. One problem of deaths, however, is that they occur at different ages, and we feel that the loss involved is greater in (he death of a child than in that of an adult. A more appropriate measure would therefore be the numnber of years lost, which we shall use to measure both direct and structural violence. In evaluating the amount of direct or structural violence we compare the real world not with an ideal world in an abstract sense, but with a potential world. Death as such is unavoidable, but we would consider all war-deaths as potentially avoidable, and a great number of deaths from illnesses and accidents as caused by the existing distribution of wealth and power. In most countries, that is, the average level of health could be raised through a redistribution of present resources. There is an avoidable deprivation of life, measured in lost man-years. If a society has the resources medical, organizational, financial to give an average life expectancy of c years to its members, then the question is whether the average life expectancy of social groups is correlated with social position, so dilat the lower the social position, the lower thelife expectancy. In other words, we assume that life expectancy, L, is a function of social position, S, the latter defined as ranging from O to 1:

Harold Pinter has explored violence on many levels, ranging from the most palpable, visible forms to the most subtle. Taking recourse to Johan Galtung’s theory of violence and its typology as presented in his violence triangle, I have attempted to probe in this paper how direct, structural and cultural violence are projected in Pinter’s play, The Caretaker. Direct violence, which has a visibility factor is most often related to the invisible cultural and structural violence and is time and again the outcome of these subtle forms of violence. But it is a fact that direct violence does not affect many people as the cultural and structural violence, which constitute the hidden but major part of the ice-berg. The world has faced more violence through racism, poverty, religious fanaticism, unemployment, famine, illiteracy, sexism, conservative ideologies and so on. The paper attempts to establish that Pinter has through the play, The Caretaker, has presented a keen vision of our essentially violent world, which is intensified by the notion of menace and man’s basic insecurity.

There are various processes in daily life, such as invisible violence, structural, symbolic or normalised violence, which sustain the domination of one group against another. Pierre Bourdieu, from the analysis of power and domination and their social reproduction in modern societies, introduced the concept of symbolic power and violence. Symbolic power is the power to impose on the minds the idea of ​​world and social order and the social divisions based on race, religion, ethnicity or gender are legitimate and natural. Symbolic violence is realized through cognitive structures, which are our legitimate and natural assumptions, perception, thought and action frames shared by all members of our social world. Thus, symbolic violence encompasses all acts of domination and subjugation and hierarchies, which are also acts of cognition and recognition. The domination of women was realized by the establishment of a patriarchal society and state order. Without resorting to direct violence, it is seen that the codes related to the social world play an active role in sustaining symbolic violence against women, symbolic patriarchal power and domination through common perception frameworks such as education system and religion. In this article, the anthropological and sociological development of the phenomenon of honour as a form of symbolic violence normalizing the sexual control of women, and honour killings as a form of direct violence against women in the context of Turkey are examined.

This article introduces a concept of `cultural violence', and can be seen as a follow-up of the author's introduction of the concept of `structural violence' over 20 years ago (Galtung, 1969). `Cultural violence' is defined here as any aspect of a culture that can be used to legitimize violence in its direct or structural form. Symbolic violence built into a culture does not kill or maim like direct violence or the violence built into the structure. However, it is used to legitimize either or both, as for instance in the theory of a Herrenvolk, or a superior race. The relations between direct, structural and cultural violence are explored, using a violence triangle and a violence strata image, with various types of casual flows. Examples of cultural violence are indicated, using a division of culture into religion and ideology, art and language, and empirical and formal science. The theory of cultural violence is then related to two basic points in Gandhism, the doctrines of unity of life and of unity of means and ends. Finally, the inclusion of culture as a major focus of peace research is seen not only as deepening the quest for peace, but also as a possible contribution to the as yet non-existent general discipline of `culturology'.

Ante el auge de la misoginia online entendida como forma de violencia de género, se propone un análisis multidimensional y relacional exhaustivo de la violencia hacia las mujeres y un modelo comunicativo para contrarrestarla. Se combina la teoría de la violencia-paz de Galtung con el feminismo interseccional y se obtienen resultados a partir de entrevistas en profundidad con diez mujeres feministas activistas en redes. Se identifican violencias machistas simbólicas-culturales, estructurales y directas interrelacionadas, que se vinculan con violencias por raza, clase, nacionalidad e identidad sexual. A partir de este diagnóstico, se diseña un modelo de comunicación para la paz orientado a trascender las diferentes violencias. El estudio realiza cuatro aportes de relevancia a los Estudios para la Paz: 1. La violencia simbólica se relaciona con opresiones interseccionales. 2. La violencia comunicativa no solo tiene un carácter simbólico que legitima las violencias estructural y directa, sino que las contiene y efectúa performativamente. 3. El modelo de comunicación incide tanto en las dimensiones estructurales y directas de la sociedad como del mundo online. 4. La propuesta de Galtung para la resolución de conflictos se desagrega en subdimensiones (educativa, mediática, política, social, ciudadana y tecnológica) que permiten un abordaje más concreto y complejo.

This contribution addresses the problem of violence by and violence against Christians in the first three centuries of the common era by using the definition of both direct and cultural violence as developed by Johan Galtung. Ancient religions offer examples of both and this paper argues that violence cannot always be explained by non-religious factors but is inherent to the traditions themselves. The ‘pax deorum’ mechanism identified the Christian refusal to sacrifice as the cause of catastrophe and triggered direct violence against Christians. Direct violence by Christians is very rare in the first three centuries but the paper offers examples of a violent discourse in Jewish and Christian sources as a prefiguration of real violence against idols and temples in later centuries. The Kitos-war is perhaps the closest example of a religious war in the Roman period and, although Christians were not involved, this paper asks the question whether Greek and Roman intellectuals saw the religious exclusivism common to both Judaism and Christianity as a threat to the religious inclusiveness of the Empire, in which case Christian proselytism would have identified the latter as the greatest threat. The final stage of violence against Christians, large scale state persecutions, were accompanied by a religious “war” of propaganda. Intellectuals close to officials instigating direct violence against Christians attacked their exclusiveness. In the context of the Great Persecution Hierocles used The Life of Apollonius of Tyana to attack Christian claims to superiority. This work by Flavius Philostratus is extremely difficult to interpret and the link between Philostratus and the religious politics of the Severan dynasty is a matter of conjecture but the rejection of Jewish exclusiveness is so clear and the tension in this work between allusions to the Gospels and the absence of any explicit reference to Christianity have triggered the question whether Philostratus was also thinking of Christian exclusivism. His work combines religious inclusivism with an epistemological skepticism which only rejects exclusive religious truth-claims, and it can perhaps be interpreted as the terms on which pagan intellectuals were willing to include Christianity in their religious-cultural system. What lay ahead was however far less subtle.

Learning From the Past and Working in the Present to Create an Antiracist Future for Academic Medicine.

This phenomenological study explores the lived experiences of teachers affected by direct and structural violence in the divided community of Lukulu district of the Western Province of Zambia. The objectives of this study were to; explore teachers' experiences of direct and structural violence in some selected schools of Lukulu district, investigate the causes of direct and structural violence against teachers as well as provide recommendations for resolving direct and structural violence against teachers in Lukulu district. The study was guided by the structural violence theory (Galtung, 1969), Peace education theory (Harris, 2003) and the Critical Peace education theory (Wulf,1974). The study employed interpretive phenomenological analysis, thereby interviewing fifteen participants in the categories of five school managers and ten teachers from five purposively sampled schools. Thematic analysis was used to interpret the findings and investigate the ways in which division, direct and structural violence against teachers affected the delivery of education, development and welfare of teachers. The study revealed that structural violence against teachers manifested in verbal abuse of teachers by senior managers, direct political violence on the teachers perceived to belong to other political parties by the ruling party cadres, violence in form of insults from pupils, parents and community members and chronic gossiping and rumour mongering which proved to be detrimental to the wellbeing of the teachers. Additionally, the study highlighted some of the causes of violence against teachers such as political interference in the running of educational institutions, corruption, bribery and favouritism; lack of transparency and accountability in the appointment of teachers to management positions and poor representation and support from respective teacher unions. Besides that, the study revealed several effects of violence against teachers such as physical injuries, loss of human life, suicide, loss of property, closure of schools, loss of teaching and learning time as teachers tend to pursue court cases against perpetrators of the violence. In view of the foregoing, this study recommended implementation of policy reforms that addresses the structural inequalities and peace education such as establishment of the directorate of peace education, development and international education at national, provincial, district and school levels that should have in its structure a national peace education, development and international education director, provincial peace education and development mentors, district peace education and development mentors and school peace education and development mentors. These officers would be critical to advancing the peace education agenda through comparative and international education advocacy. Finally, this study contributes to Galtung (1969)'s concept of positive peace by proposing three forms of positive peace education. These are direct positive peace education, structural positive peace education and cultural positive peace education. These are critical to the resolution of direct, cultural and structural violence against teachers.

The study explores many types of violence placed on the female characters in Lynn Nottage's Ruined. The researcher attempts to reach the results by conducting a thorough examination of the chosen work. The research investigates how Nottage uses the plot, setting, and characters to convey complex concepts and themes about violence. The study examines the manifestation of violence in Lynn Nottage’s Pulitzer Prize-winning play Ruined (2008) through the lens of Johan Galtung’s theatrical framework of violence. Galtung’s tripartite model encompassing direct, structural, and cultural violence provides a critical tool for analyzing the systemic and multifaceted nature of conflict in the play, which portrays the brutal realities of woman in war-torn Congo. By applying Galtung’s theory, the study highlights how Nottage dramatize not only visible acts of physical and sexual violence (direct violence) but also the entrenched socio-political inequalities (structural violence) and the normalized ideologies that perpetuate oppression (cultural violence). The findings of this study add to the existing body of knowledge of contemporary American Drama and the role of violence in reflecting the social and cultural context of modern American society or even other societies that American Playwrights use to add more universality to the concept of violence. Finally, this study provides a thorough investigation of the use of violence in Contemporary American Theater, using Lynn Nottage's Ruined as an example. By investigating the role of violence in the aforementioned play, taking into account the social, cultural, and historical conditions in which the play was introduced. The study gives a nuanced understanding of the concept of violence's significance and its influence on contemporary American Drama.

Johan Galtung coined the concept of «triangle of violence» to explain the dynamics of the generation of violence in social conflicts. According to this author, violence is like an iceberg in which the visible violence (or direct violence) is only a part of the conflict, with other more invisible types of violence such as structural violence and cultural violence. Understanding violence, in this case against women, means taking into account the three types of violence. Likewise, in the feminist theory, the presence of a specific type of violence to which women are exposed by their gender and which concerns injuries, physical, sexual, psychological or economic distress was made explicit. From this point of view, violence against women is understood as part of a system of domination or, more specifically, as dominance practices established by men. The purpose of the text presented hereafter is to describe and analyze the various types of violence against women in relation with the uneven situation of women in society. The methodology used has required the consultation of secondary data obtained from official resources, as well as the development of indicators which show the violence experienced by women from the perspective of the «triangle of violence», regarding data in relation with direct, structural or cultural violence. The findings suggest the interrelation of such violence types, specifying that, in all of them, the lesser power and the inequality of women with regard to men constitutes an explanatory factor in the production of violence.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to investigate direct, cultural, and structural violence in education system in the midst of armed conflict in Southern Thailand. Design/methodology/approach The exploratory qualitative case study conducted in-depth interviews and focus groups with 40 participants, consisting of students, parents, teachers, guidance counselors, principals, experts, education specialists, and administrators from seven schools across the three southern border provinces. Findings The study reveals some misconceptions of violence, normalization of direct violence in armed conflict, and pinpoints the ways in which cultural violence is used to legitimize structural and direct violence in the education system, as well as adverse effects and ethno-religious segregation in schools and the larger society. Social implications Some policy recommendations are offered to address violence and promote sustainable peace through the education system in Southern Thailand. Originality/value This paper offers new perspectives on the inter-relationship between education and violence and adverse effects on violence in the education system in the midst of armed conflict in Southern Thailand.

abstractThere is growing evidence of marital violence experienced by women in the Muslim community in South Africa. While women may have recourse to divorce in a violent marital relationship, structural and cultural barriers prevent them from dealing effectively with abuse. It would seem that women receive little help from religious organisations and other structures in dealing with marital violence. Androcentric applications of Islamic law by Muslim religious leaders limit women’s access to suitable options for dealing with marital violence and obtaining a divorce. Against this background, Islamic feminist theory provides a challenge to patriarchal interpretations of the Qur’an and draws attention to social issues such as stigma, normalisation, and acceptance of violence which results in women occupying subordinate positions in Muslim society, hence becoming victims of not only direct violence but also cultural and structural violence. Using concepts of direct, structural and cultural violence as analytical instruments, this article highlights the ways in which Muslim women, who experience marital violence, are limited by metaphorical prisons created by structural and cultural norms produced by Muslim religious leaders who ascribe to patriarchal interpretations of Islam.

This purpose of this study to determine the form of violent behavior and discrimination againstcharacters in the novel 00.00 by Ameylia Falensia using Johan Galtung's theory of violence anddiscrimination in schools. The research method used is a qualitative descriptive method. In thisstudy, data collection used literature study techniques, namely reading techniques and note-taking techniques. The results showed the following results. This research resulted in an analysis of violence and discrimination in the novel 00.00 by Ameylia Falensia, the analysis of violence produced two forms of violence, namely (1) direct violence, and (2) structural violence. Direct violence is divided into direct physical violence and direct violence verbally. The violence was immediately received by the Lengkara and Masnaka figures in the form of beatings, sightings, and harsh words. And the sturktural violence was accepted by the figures of Nina, Aslan, Masnaka, Prima, and Deo. Research on discrimination focuses on discrimination in schools, namely the occurrence of bullying/bullying received by the main actors.

Peace as the absence of both direct and indirect violence in Nigeria has eluded the Nigerian child. From the perspective of direct violence, the Nigerian child has not been spared the horrors of wars that have dotted Nigeria’s geographical space since independence. From the perspective of indirect violence, the Nigerian child has been thrown to the center stage of structural and cultural violence. This has combined to challenge the long walk of the Nigerian child to peace and security within Nigeria. However, in the analysis of war and peace in Nigeria, the plight of the Nigerian child is rarely brought to bear. From the home to the streets, the Nigerian child has experience varying aspects of violence that has challenged his/her overall growth, development and progress. The study examines the impact of indirect and direct violence on the Nigerian child. It submits that in spite of extant legislations meant to protect the Nigerian child, the structure of the Nigerian society arguably makes the Nigerian child vulnerable to hardship, hunger, poverty, exclusion, oppression, marginalization, subordination, intimidation, maltreatment and denial. The study recommends that the Nigerian child should be treated as a security issue demanding immediate attention and responses from the government. Key words: Nigeria, war, peace, direct violence, indirect violence, development, child.

Direct violence as drug-related harm: Basuco and harm reduction in Bogotá, Colombia.