A History of Unusual Weather Phenomena: Natural Disasters in Tonkin (Đàng Ngoài) during the Lê-Trịnh Era

It is argued that the environment can now be considered a security issue because of the increasingly unsustainable features of modern development. The concept of security is evolving to embrace interlocking elements of military security, humanitarian security, economic security and environmental security. The fact that many Navies of the world often find themselves deployed on humanitarian assistance, disaster relief or fisheries protection reflects the changing concept of security within the coastal zone. Environmental security is described as the capability to protect communities and their natural environments from threats of: (1) environmental asset scarcity arising through environmental degradation or depletion, (2) environmental risks arising from natural hazards or technological disasters and, (3) environment related tensions and conflicts. Threats may include, but not be restricted to, emergencies arising from natural disasters (tsunami, earthquake, extreme weather, coastal flooding, landslide, erosion) major accidents (oil spill, ship casualty), illegal discharges and bilge dumping, illegal fishing, trafficking (people, endangered species, waste, drugs and contraband), and robbery at sea, piracy or civil unrest. Notwithstanding what have been termed ‘creeping disasters’, namely sea level rise and drought. When considering how we protect communities against environmental risk we should first recognize that the impact of hazards is often unique to the locations at which they occur. Secondly we should acknowledge that we are unlikely to be able to accurately predict the probability of a disaster occurring at any particular place or time. Therefore * BMT Asia Pacific (Singapore) vulnerability assessments are proposed as being an essential tool for communities to exploit in developing capacity to mitigate and recover from the impact of disasters. It is proposed that the spatial analysis of vulnerability will reveal a communities natural resilience to disaster and allow them to exploit early warning systems through efficient mitigation of a range of threats. Vulnerability mapping may be coupled with routine surveillance using Earth Observation (EO) to strengthen early warning systems within the coastal zone. For remote sensing to be fully exploited in protecting communities a thorough examination of the information available from EO data is required in relation to disaster risk. Firstly, indicators need to be developed that describe the social, economic and environmental assets (quality of life capital) and infrastructure at risk within a community. Secondly, indicators need to be developed from EO data to describe the vulnerability and resilience of each asset to disaster risk. This would allow a mosaic of assets to be built that describe a communities overall resilience to hazards (e.g. coastal flooding, mudslides or the threat of oil spill from major accidents). Finally, coastal surveillance and information dissemination infrastructures need to be commissioned for the routine surveillance of threats, early warning and historical analysis of coastal hazards. ENVIRONMENTAL SECURITY Responses to the Issue of Environmental Security The vision of sustainable coastal communities and the achievement of the millennium development goals are undermined by the threat of illegal or negligent human activity and natural disasters. Environmental crimes and environmental emergencies or catastrophes are increasingly being recognized as breaches of environmental security. Causes may © IPA, 2011 30th Annual Convention Proceedings (Volume 2), 2005

This scoping review aims to systematically identify and map the roles of primary healthcare professionals in rural and remote areas during natural, man-made and pandemic disasters. Disasters can be caused by natural events, man-made incidents or infective agents resulting in a pandemic. Healthcare practitioners working in primary care settings have important roles during disaster prevention, preparedness, response and recovery. When rural and remote settings are affected by disasters, there are unique challenges for healthcare professionals. This review will aim to contribute to disaster management knowledge within rural and remote primary health care, and assist in the development of practice-based disaster preparedness and future policy discussion. This review will consider studies that include primary healthcare professionals, defined as having first-level contact with patients in the community, in rural or remote areas only. The role of the healthcare professional will also be discussed within the paper. Research from Australia, Canada, the USA, New Zealand and the UK will be included. Databases to be searched include CINAHL (EBSCOhost), PubMed, Scopus and Embase (Elsevier), as well as gray literature within Trove, MedNar and OpenGrey. The search will be limited to articles written in English and published from 1978 to the present. Titles and abstracts will be screened by two independent reviewers, and full-text studies will be retrieved and assessed against the inclusion criteria. Results will be recorded in a Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) diagram. Data will be extracted and presented as a tabular summary with supporting narratives and figures.

The adverse effects that racial and ethnic minority groups experience before, during, and after disaster events are of public health concern. The objective of this study was to examine disparities in the epidemiologic and geographic patterns of natural disaster and extreme weather mortality by race and ethnicity. We used mortality data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention from January 1, 1999, through December 31, 2018. We defined natural disaster and extreme weather mortality based on International Classification of Diseases, 10th Revision codes X30-X39. We calculated age-adjusted mortality rates by race, ethnicity, and hazard type, and we calculated age-adjusted mortality rate ratios by race, ethnicity, and state. We used geographic mapping to examine age-adjusted mortality rate ratios by race, ethnicity, and state. Natural disasters and extreme weather caused 27 335 deaths in the United States during 1999-2018. Although non-Hispanic White people represented 68% of total natural disaster and extreme weather mortality, the mortality rate per 100 000 population among non-Hispanic Black people was 1.87 times higher (0.71) and among non-Hispanic American Indian/Alaska Native people was 7.34 times higher (2.79) than among non-Hispanic White people (0.38). For all racial and ethnic groups, exposure to extreme heat and cold were the 2 greatest causes of natural disaster and extreme weather mortality. Racial and ethnic disparities in natural disaster and extreme weather mortality were highest in the South, Southwest, Mountain West, and Upper Midwest. Racial and ethnic minority populations have a greater likelihood of mortality from natural disaster or extreme weather events than non-Hispanic White people. Our study strengthens the current knowledge base on these disparities and may inform and improve disaster preparedness and response efforts.

Natural and human-made disasters, including earthquakes, floods, cyber-security threats, and antimicrobial resistance, collectively continue to strain local economies and affect communities worldwide in a multiplicity of ways, demanding international response and posing ongoing logistical hurdles (Nicogossian & Stabile, 2015). Natural disasters can strike anywhere and do not discriminate between developed and developing countries, though affluence certainly eases the always arduous recovery process. Geographic location and proximity to natural resources and products supporting major commercial nodes are major challenges facing many communities is the aftermath of disasters, with dire implications for human health. Hurricanes and tropical storms regularly affect coastal regions during specific months of the year. The population of coastal regions is steadily increasing, and expanding urbanization usually brings geographic and ecological changes. Two-thirds of annual coastal disasters are associated with extreme weather events, such as tornadoes, destructive wind, and flooding, and these are part of a “trend that is expected to continue into the future … due to climate change and sea level rise” (Newmann, Vafeidis, Zimmermann, & Nicholls, 2015). Such disasters are attributable in part to the documented contribution of human activities (Nicogossian, Stabile, Kloiber, & Septimus, 2017). The severe impacts of multiple hurricanes that devastated and flooded Florida, Caribbean islands, the Gulf Coast of Texas and Mexico, and Puerto Rico, in 2017 are unfortunate reminders of the severe and worsening challenges facing coastal communities. While there has been marked improvement in disaster response, including early warnings and large-scale evacuations, community recovery is still problematic. The aftermath of such disasters can result in unnecessary loss of life and astronomical costs. Flooding, infections, mold, and exposure to environmental and industrial hazards continue to hamper recovery. Natural or human-made disasters can overwhelm the ability of communities and even governments to care for those affected. Socioeconomic disparities and post-traumatic stress disorders demand continuous attention (Nicogossian et al., 2012). Frail elderly people are particularly vulnerable during hurricanes (McCann, 2015). Evidence that the poor, children, elderly, and those afflicted with chronic health disorders are at a higher risk for morbidity and mortality is mounting. Since 2001, disease-surveillance, provision of public health services (vaccines, antibiotics), ability to deliver care in the event of mass casualties (surge capacity) and community resiliency have all become essential elements of preparedness. In the United States, health-care readiness is part of homeland security preparedness, and is not viewed as an extension of daily emergency response. Disaster response and resilience requires continuous training and the ability to respond with measured and appropriate surge capacity. Standards of care, interoperability, and coordination of response to disasters have been developed, adopted and continue to be improved upon (Gostin & Hanfling, 2009; Gostin et al., 2010; Hanfling & Llewellyn, 2014). Planning and building resilience in coastal regions should address all of the above four areas of interest, in addition to long-term community support and better engineering of human settlements. The goals of health-care facility preparedness should encompass planning and training, not only for medical and emergency response personnel, but for the community. Availability of military resources and rapid deployment are also essential to ensure survival, rescue, and humanitarian assistance. The 2017 hurricane season enhanced the urgency of addressing human activities’ contributions to climate change and coastal vulnerabilities. We are still trying to develop better predictive models of such interactions based on evidence to guide mitigating strategies (Adger, Hughes, Folke, Carpenter, & Rockström, 2005; Janssen & Ostrom, 2006; Rose & Shu-Yi, 2005). Adequate research funding is a must to address disaster mitigation strategies and develop reliable warning systems. We do encourage the submission of manuscripts addressing policies and practices for disaster mitigation and community health resilience. Finally, we would like to offer special thanks to our Editorial Board members, contributors, and readership, and wish you all a happy and prosperous 2018.

Chapter 1 of this book focuses on Shakespeare’s representation of natural disaster, meteorological anomalies and extreme weather brought about by the Little Ice Age (c. 1300–1850). The author uses the phrase ‘natural disaster’ in a general sense but also teases out the tension between natural and unnatural in a coincidence of opposites. Natural or unnatural disasters evoke fear, expose human vulnerability and raise questions about survival and the characters’ exposure to forces unknown or beyond human control in a veritable landscape of fear. Bodies, homes, properties and daily habits of life are thrust into uncertainty or disarray. Weather anomalies, for Shakespeare, also function as portals or passageways to something unpredictable and wild. These passageways connect to and bring into view parallel realms of darkness and shadows. Momentarily, the characters peek into the dark corners of the natural world, the recesses of nature and nature’s hiding places. The author’s discussion of A Midsummer Night’s Dream and The Tempest demonstrates in particular that, when disasters happen, intensely psychological and cultural states of fear emerge, but the harrowing experience in a hostile environment also serves to bring about change and a dislocation of habits of mind.

<p>To understand where people turn for information regarding natural disasters, hazards, and extreme weather, we surveyed residents of Ashe, Watauga, and Rockingham counties in North Carolina (n = 79). Respondents ranged from 27 years old to 87 years old. Approximately 22% (17/79) reported some college or less. We found general preference for local sources. Most respondents were open to signing up for a phone or text alert service regarding air quality but were more likely to sign up for a local service than for one offered by a federal organization, e.g., the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, t = 2.4, <em>p</em> < .05. Those with less education were more likely to sign up for a local phone or text service than counterparts, standardized beta = - .32, <em>p</em> < .01, in an ordinary least squares regression with age and education as predictors. The most cited sources of information on natural disasters, hazards, or extreme weather in terms of frequent or very frequent engagement were primarily local:<strong> </strong>local online sources, local television news, a local newspaper, neighbors or family members (through face-to-face or phone conversations), and social media. Sources that were most often cited as being trusted almost completely or completely<strong> </strong>also were largely local.<strong> </strong>We asked a subset of respondents (n = 62) to define trust in their own words and found their conceptualizations of trust to be multidimensional. Three coders established intercoder reliability (Krippendorff’s alpha > .70) in coding potential dimensions of trust in the definitions: trust as perceived source competency, as perceived consistency by the source, or as encapsulated interest (or as a source acknowledging one’s own interest). Respondents harbored different visions of trust: 84% (52/62) defined trust in terms of competency, 23% (14/62) defined trust in terms of consistency, and 47% (29/62) defined trust in terms of encapsulated interest. Those who defined trust in terms of encapsulated interest differed from those who did not in seeking information about natural disasters, hazards, or extreme weather from a local health organization, <em>t</em> = -2.1, <em>p</em> < .05, from state government, <em>t</em> = -2.1, <em>p</em> < .05, from a local nonprofit, <em>t </em>= -2.3, <em>p</em> < .05, from a local college or university, <em>t</em> = -2.0, <em>p</em> < .05, and from local TV news, <em>t</em> = 2.2, <em>p</em> < .05. (They were more likely to turn to a local health organization, local nonprofit, state government, or local college or university and less likely to turn to local TV news.) Results suggest warning and preparation communication efforts should partner with local organizations as message sources and highlight shared values and interests with audiences.</p>

Natural hazards and disasters can have significant impacts on the economic and social development of Latin America and the Caribbean. In the past decade alone, OECD and BRIC countries have experienced an estimated USD $1.5 trillion in economic damages from large-scale disasters.Latin America and the Caribbean is a highly exposed region to natural hazards, including earthquakes, volcanoes, and extreme weather. Out of the world’s top 15 countries exposed to three or more hazards, 7 are located in the Latin American and the Caribbean region. Increasing climate variability and urban agglomerations is likely to increase these risk levels in the future, especially risk associated to critical infrastructure. Critical infrastructure underpins economies, governments, and societies. The resilience of critical infrastructure not only determines the degree to which countries are affected by natural disasters, accidents, and intentional attacks, but also preconditions their ability to respond to and recover from these disruptive shocks. Damage to critical systems can cause significant social hardship by disrupting access to basic lifelines (e.g., electricity, drinking water, food distribution) and produce large economic knock-on impacts by disrupting business for some time beyond the actual disaster event. Ensuring resilience of critical infrastructure has proven to be a key challenge. There are also several good practices for managing the potential financial exposures of governments to disaster damages and losses to public assets. Developing a policy evaluation framework based on a forward-looking analysis of good practices in critical infrastructure resilience is a priority objective.

Trends in weather related disasters – Consequences for insurers and society

Campbell examines programmes related to the earth and atmospheric sciences that have attracted particular criticism for their populist, sensationalist and problematic content. The chapter concentrates on the so-called ‘weather porn’ programmes, those which focus on extreme weather and natural disasters. Campbell contrasts techniques relating to claims to the real and visual authenticity used in conventional science programmes with those used by programmes on natural disasters, where the experiential immediacy of the typically amateur cameraperson is often favoured over the sober exposition of scientific experts. In focusing on disaster impacts, the destruction of built capital and imaging disasters through the use of CGI Campbell argues ‘weather porn’ programmes are part of the cultural tradition of the apocalyptic sublime response to extreme weather and natural disasters.

Climate change is associated with an increase in the frequency of extreme weather that threatens emotional well-being, with some research pointing to increased vulnerability among older adults. We investigated how age relates to depression and anxiety following adversities due to extreme weather or natural disaster. Socioemotional selectivity theory (SST) posits that older age buffers against emotional distress. The strength and vulnerability integration model (SAVI) posits that this age-related advantage is attenuated during periods of acute stress. Members (n = 9761, M age = 52.22, SD = 16.36 yrs) of a nationally representative, probability-based US internet panel, the Understanding America Study (UAS), reported their experience with extreme weather or natural disaster (e.g., severe storms, tornado, flood), associated adversities (e.g., property loss), and depression and anxiety over the past month. Of the 1075 respondents experiencing extreme weather or natural disaster, 216 reported related adversity. Those experiencing adversity reported more anxiety and depression than those with no events, while extreme weather or disaster alone made no significant difference. Consistent with SST, older age was associated with less depression and anxiety. This age-related benefit was most apparent among those experiencing weather- or disaster-related adversity, even when controlling for socio-demographic correlates. Findings highlight age-related emotional resilience with implications for climate change policy and practice.

Global assessment of El Niño's disaster burden

In Spring 2019, two cyclones hit Mozambique in quick succession, causing a humanitarian crisis and raising the question of whether this was a preview of what is to come in a climatically changed world.

Anthropogenic climate change promises to bring existential changes to human society in the coming years. One such example of these changes is the increasing frequency of extreme weather capable of causing significant damage. Despite this, many Americans are acutely unaware of the relationship between climate change and extreme weather events, perhaps because of a lack of direct messaging about it. This study analyzed the effects of natural disasters on climate change discussion sentiment and volume through news media and Twitter posts. The study hypothesized that specific major natural disasters would lead to increases in the number of climate change–related Twitter posts and news articles, as well as more positive climate sentiment, indicative of belief in the severity of global warming. Through an analysis of almost 35 million climate change–related tweets and 300 000+ news articles, along with the collection of over 130 million natural-disaster-related tweets published in the United States between 2010 and 2020, media volume rose an average of 10% around specific extreme weather events, corroborating the first aspect of the hypothesis. The ratio of positive to negative sentiment tweets, however, decreased, suggesting the tendency of extreme weather to elicit more response from climate change deniers than supporters. Thus, increased climate change discussion around major natural disasters represents a missed opportunity for continuing to drive forward climate change messaging and awareness in the United States. Significance Statement Extreme weather events threaten Americans’ lives and livelihoods. In turn, anthropogenic climate change has been shown to amplify the frequency and intensity of these weather events, creating uncertainty for communities across the country. Despite the proven connection between climate change and natural disasters, public messaging often fails to leverage anxiety over extreme weather to drive support for environmental action. This study sought to quantify the media relationships of climate change and natural disasters to inform awareness strategies.

Natural disasters and extreme weather events are increasing in both intensity and frequency. Emerging evidence suggests that there is a relationship between intimate partner violence (IPV) and natural disasters. However, there is a scarcity of methodologically sound research in this area with no systematic review to date. To address the gap, this paper systematically assesses the quantitative evidence on the association between IPV with natural disasters between 1990 and March 2023. There were 27 articles that meet the inclusion criteria for the data extraction process. A quantitative critical appraisal tool was used to assess the quality of each study and a narrative synthesis approach to explore the findings. The review found an association between IPV and disasters, across disaster types and countries. However, more research is needed to explore the nuances and gaps within the existing knowledge base. It was unclear whether this relationship was causal or if natural disasters heightened existing risk factors. Further, it is inconclusive as to whether disasters create new cases of IPV or exacerbate existing violence. The majority of studies focused on hurricanes and earthquakes with a dearth of research on “slow onset disasters.” These gaps represent the need for further research. Further research can provide a more thorough understanding of IPV and natural disasters, increasing stakeholders’ ability to strengthen community capacity and reduce IPV when natural disasters occur.

People experiencing poverty and inequality will be affected first and worst by the impacts of climate change to infrastructure and human settlements, including those caused by increasingly frequent and intense extreme weather events and natural disasters. They have the least capacity to cope, to adapt, to move and to recover. Community service organisations (CSOs) play a critical role in supporting individuals, families and communities experiencing poverty and inequality to build resilience and respond to adverse changes in circumstances. As such, the services they provide comprise a critical component of social infrastructure in human settlements. However, very little is understood about CSOs own vulnerability to – or their role in managing and mitigating risks to their clients and the community from – climate change impacts to physical infrastructure. The Extreme Weather, Climate Change and the Community Sector – Risks and Adaptations project examined the relationship between physical and social infrastructure (in the form of CSO service provision). Specifically, the ways in which the climate-driven failure of CSO service delivery worsens risks to the individuals and communities they serve and, on the other hand, how preparedness may reduce vulnerability to climate change and extreme weather impacts to human settlements and infrastructure. The research comprised a comprehensive and critical scoping, examination and review of existing research findings and an audit, examination and judgment-based evaluation of the current vulnerabilities and capacities of CSOs under projected climate change scenarios. It employed three key methods of consultation and data collection. A literature review examined research conducted to date in Australia and comparative countries internationally on the vulnerability and climate change adaptation needs of CSOs. A program of 10 Community Sector Professional Climate Workshops consulted over 150 CSO representatives to develop a qualitative record of extreme event and climate change risks and corresponding adaptation strategies specific to CSOs. A national survey of CSOs, which resulted in the participation of approximately 500 organisations, produced a quantitative data set about the nature of CSO vulnerability to climate change and extreme weather impacts to infrastructure, whether and how CSOs are approaching the adaptation task and key barriers to adaptation. While the methods employed and the absence of empirical data sets quantifying CSO vulnerability to climate change impacts create limitations to the evidence-base produced, findings from the research suggest that CSOs are highly vulnerable and not well prepared to respond to climate change and extreme weather impacts to physical infrastructure and that this underlying organisational vulnerability worsens the vulnerability of people experiencing poverty and inequality to climate change. However, the project results indicate that if well adapted, CSOs have the willingness, specialist skills, assets and capacity to make a major contribution to the resilience and adaptive capacity of their clients and the community more broadly (sections of which will be plunged into adversity by extreme events). Despite this willingness, the evidence presented shows that few CSOs have undertaken significant action to prepare for climate change and worsening extreme weather events. Key barriers to adaptation identified through the research are inadequate financial resources, lack of institutionalised knowledge and skills for adaptation and the belief that climate change adaptation is beyond the scope of CSOs core business. On the other hand, key indicators of organisational resilience to climate change and extreme weather impacts include: level of knowledge about extreme weather risks, past experience of an extreme weather event and organisational size. Given its size, scope and the critical role the Australian community sector plays in building client and community resilience and in assisting communities to respond to and recover from the devastating impacts of extreme weather events and natural disasters, the research identifies serious gaps in both the policy frameworks and the research base required to ensure the sector’s resilience and adaptive capacity – gaps which appear to have already had serious consequences. To address these gaps, a series of recommendations has been prepared to enable the development and implementation of a comprehensive, sector-specific adaptation and preparedness program, which includes mechanisms to institutionalise knowledge and skills, streamlined tools appropriate to the needs and capacity of a diverse range of organisations and a benchmarking system to allow progress towards resilience and preparedness to be monitored. Future research priorities for adaptation in this sector have also been identified.