A history of U.S. tariffs: Quantifying strategic trade‑offs in tariff policy design

U.S. tariff policy has historically balanced competing goals—revenue, protection and reciprocity. Policy priorities have shifted over time in response to changing economic and political conditions. Using a calibrated general equilibrium model, this paper illustrates these trade-offs through the lens of tariff Laffer curves.

Through a comparative perspective, the present paper sheds light on recent policy trends and political strategies to reform pensions in Europe. Pension reforms are a risky process. Even when reforms pass, their implementation is uncertain. Risks of partial or total reversal are always present.
\nAfter the brief introduction, Section one provides a comparative review of the measures passed in different European countries in the aftermath of the recent economic downturn. Many of these measures resemble what was included in the Swiss Old Age Security 2020. The increase of the pensionable age, its equalization between men and women, and the increase of the system revenues have been part of many reform packages across Europe. While in the following we refer to broad reform trends, we mainly focus on three cases: Denmark, Germany and Italy. They are representative of different pension models and different political contexts . All have passed major reforms in the last two decades – before and after the spread of the financial crisis – with different processes of implementation. The key concepts we use to assess policies are reform reversal and stability.
\nSection two focuses on the main traits of the politics of pensions. Through the analysis of the same three countries we see that reform packages are often politically fragile. Many European countries have experienced contingent agreements - between political and social forces - that tend to be contested in the longer-term. We refer to few major challenges to pro-reform consensus. The changing economic conditions, the emergence of new political forces, and the ongoing re-framing of policy priorities may weaken the pro-reform consensus. On top of that, reform packages are complex deals that are difficult to design and implement. Their multi-dimensional nature does often lead to problems of incoherence that weaken the political support for reform and provide room for further contestation. Here the key concepts we propose are those of inclusion or insulation as typical traits of the policymaking process. 
\nThe brief comparative analysis seems to prove that the more inclusive is the policymaking, the lower is the risk of contestation in the longer-term. In the concluding section, some final remarks address the prospects for pension policy and politics in the context of population ageing and austerity.

Word Travel Tourism Council (WTTC) in 2019 stated that Indonesia on averaged contributed 10% of per year. As a form of tourism, ecotourism has its own specificities that is promoting environmental conservation, the welfare of local residents and respect for local culture. So that ecotourism is much in demand by tourists, this is because of a shift in the paradigm of international tourism from the form of mass tourism to special interest tourism, namely ecotourism. The research objectives are (1) to determine the relationship between the role of community-based ecotourism and community economic conditions, (2) to determine changes in community economic conditions before and after the existence of community-based ecotourism. The method used in this research is survey method. The object of this study was the Head of the Mon Ikeun Village Family, Lhoknga District, Aceh Besar District. The number of respondents taken at 10% of the total population of 38 people. The analytical method used in this study is the Spearman Correlation Rank Test statistic, and the T-Paired Test, and descriptive analysis. The results showed that the role of Community-Based Ecotourism there was a significant relationship between the economic conditions of the community and the role of ecotourism. This is indicated by the correlation value of 0.651, which is included in the high category. Changes in Economic Conditions of the community before and after the existence of community-based ecotourism experienced changes in economic conditions with a Sig value: the level of significance of the relationship: Results 0,000 means significant at the 0.01 level. And for Sig. (2- tailed): Probability value or P test value T Paired: Result = 0,000. Meaning: there is a difference between before and after the existence of community-based ecotourism. Because: P value> 0.05 (95% trust). Mean: 84032.5 Positive Value: This means that there is a trend of changes in economic conditions after the community-based ecotourism. Correlation value between changes in economic conditions and the role of ecotourism results 0.811 means a strong and positive relationship.

Cross-border comparison of land cover and landscape pattern in Eastern Europe using a hybrid classification technique

Choosing an optimum sand control method

The effectiveness of strategic planning: competitiveness in the Brazilian supermarket sector

Well-being and its determinants from the perspective of the Palestinian youth in the occupied Palestinian territory

Since 1987 interest and publication in Norwegian housing policies have increased significantly. This article deepens and widens my earlier published work on Norwegian housing policy, and it responds to some earlier reviews of my work. The central themes of the article are that Norway has used state policy to develop its housing sector over many decades; that since the mid‐1970s policy makers have had to adjust their housing system to national and international macro‐economic change; and that in a comparative perspective, Norway has pursued housing policies which have important anti‐poverty elements, some egalitarianism, and some useful choice and efficiencies. Norway has used balanced state, market, and self‐help roles to develop its housing sector, and the institutional framework in which these roles operate has been reformed since the late‐1970s in the light of changing economic, social, and political conditions. Changes in the international economy have been particularly significant as Norway depends u...

The essence of the modern asset‐market approach to the analysis of exchange rate behavior includes the role of the trade balance account. We examine the relationship between exchange rate changes and US trade balance announcements. Statistically significant exchange rate adjustments to these announcements are documented using for the first time the comparison period approach to testing the significance of trade balance announcements on exchange rates. The evidence is consistent with the predictions of the modern asset‐market exchange rate model. There is also evidence that the foreign exchange market is more sensitive to increasing rather than decreasing trade balance deficit announcements. To date, a number of theoretical papers have investigated the possible sources of the exchange rate determination process (see, Dornbusch [1976,1980], Dornbusch and Fisher [1980], Frenkel [1976, 1981], Kouri [1976], and Mussa [1982], among others). There is no consensus on how exchange rates are determined and why they...

Determining factors affecting cross-border transport on King Fahd Causeway and comparison with urban travel

Australia has relatively more immigrant families, of greater ethnic diversity, than most western societies. In order to understand the diversity of experiences of immigrant families in Australia it is necessary to reject simplistic “culturalist” explanations in favour of a political economy approach. The immigrant family in Australia is viewed as a social construct emerging in different ways at different times in response to changing structural, political, economic, cultural and ideological conditions at a national and international level. The dynamic intersection of ethnicity, class, gender, state practices and the racialisation of immigrant labour in Australia are the keys to understanding immigrant families in Australia.

The practice of promoting an image of the city using architectural objects, and the need to identify or create architectural icons in urban spaces, outlined in this article, occurs in many cities worldwide. The city of Szczecin in Poland, the subject of this research, is no exception. The turbulent history of the city, which for years remained within the borders of Germany, makes it particularly worth analyzing in these terms because it shows the shifting popularity of architectural objects in the context of changing political, cultural, and economic conditions. The research presented here aims to identify iconic objects commonly exploited to build an image of Szczecin, assess their prominent features, and analyze changes over time in their popularity and use for these purposes. The historical and interpretive research was based on a detailed analysis of old and contemporary architectural objects of Szczecin depicted in postcards from the last hundred years, from the period spanning 1920 to 2023. The analysis covered several digital databases containing archival and contemporary postcards. This analysis enables the identification of the most popular objects, suggests the key characteristics of iconic buildings, and identifies four basic types of buildings, which are distinct in terms of purpose, message, and the specific image of the city to which each contributes. The duration of each type as a popular object, the strength of its impact on the city’s image, and its importance for the urban landscape are also identified. The research revealed that: architecturally iconic buildings are created concerning political, economic, and social conditions and the need to promote a specific image of the city, certain features contribute to a building’s potential as an architectural icon, and the strength of the building’s impact, its importance for the city landscape, and the possibility of creating a specific image depending on its iconic type.

The aim of this paper was to review and analyse the main forest policy documents in terms of the priorities formulated at the European level for Austria, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Germany (federal level) and Brandenburg (federal state level), as well as Finland. A total of 14 documents was covered in this research, including national forest programmes and forest strategies implemented in the period from 1997 to 2017. In all of the studied countries, forest policy documents were periodically revised and updated to account for changing political, economic, social and environmental conditions. As a result, at some point during the examined 20-year period, in each country the forestry priorities and goals were defined by a national forest programme. Furthermore, the vast majority of the priorities set by the European forest policy was reflected in the programmes and strategies of all the countries. Certain priorities concerning the illegal harvesting and trade of forest products, however, have not been included in the explored documents. Combating illegal harvesting of forest products and related trade is a corner stone of the EU FLEGT Action Plan and extends beyond forest policy issues of EU member states. The second corner stone is to ensure the contribution of the forest sector to a green economy, including a new concept of green economy, which still needs to be incorporated into national forest policies. Unlike Poland, in the studied countries the priorities of European forest policy have been included in single policy programmes or strategies, which define aims and goals, as well as means of their implementation in a comprehensive and coherent manner. This promotes strengthening the position of the forest sector within the national socio-economic system and supports active shaping of its relations to other sectors of the economy.

This paper investigates the empirical relationship between citizens'perceptions of economic and political conditions and the incidence of nonviolent uprisings. Perceptions are measured by aggregating individual-level data from regional barometer surveys. The main results show that negative perceptions of political conditions -- proxied by the share of the population that is generally dissatisfied with the way democracy works -- have a significant positive effect on the number of protests and strikes. Negative perceptions of economic conditions do not seem to be significantly related to the latter. This generally holds across a large sample of countries and is particularly the case for Western and Central European countries as well as high-income countries. In developing economies, however, social protests appear to be driven by dissatisfaction with economic and political conditions. The heterogeneous effects of perceptions on uprisings across geography and income groups, however, are not robust and susceptible to changes in estimators and model specification. In particular, the international contagion of protests eliminates this international heterogeneity, implying that the incidence of uprisings in nearby countries tends to generate protests at home through its effect on perceptions related to political conditions in high-income countries. Overall, the effect of perceptions about political conditions, along with protest contagion, is robust to the inclusion of numerous control variables that capture actual economic conditions and the quality of governance across countries. The results are also robust to the use of seemingly valid instrumental variables, alternative count-data estimators, and sample composition.

W ITH modern economic growth, we observe people reallocating resources in response to changes in economic conditions. How accurately they perceive and efficiently they respond to these changes is attributed to allocative ability (Schultz, 1975). This ability is not restricted to managers of firms. People who supply labor services for hire or who are selfemployed also reallocate their time in response to changes in the value of the work they do. With long-term U.S. economic growth, one major adjustment has been a reallocation of labor between farm and nonfarm labor markets. After 1948, long-term economic forces created prospects of higher incomes in the nonfarm sector. A large proportion of both white and black families quit farming and took nonfarm jobs, causing a massive net exodus of people from farms.' Other farm families have continued to work their farms but have also taken off-farm jobs. Nationally, the percentage of farm operators reporting off-farm work rose from 39% in 1950 to 54% in 1969. Operators working 100 days or more per year off their farms increased from 23% to 40% during the same period (U.S. Department of Commerce, 1973, p. 178). The objective of this paper is to present some econometric evidence of the effect of investments in education and information (agricultural extension) on the off-farm labor supply of farmers.2 The data are county averages per farm for Iowa, North Carolina, and Oklahoma. Important findings are that raising the education level of farmers and increasing the agricultural extension input increase the off-farm labor supply of farmers. This implies that part of the return to education in agriculture arises from its effect on the reallocation of farmers' labor services between farm and nonfarm labor markets. In section I, a labor supply model is developed for household members who face options of having a wage job and a self-employed job. The labor supply decisions are treated as part of a set of joint decisions made by multiple-person farm households on inputs for household consumption and for farm production.3 Section II presents a discussion of the data, the empirical model, and the results from fitting the off-farm labor supply functions. Section III contains further implications, and section IV contains the conclusions.