A governance of climate change mitigation in transport sector and selected co-benefits in Indonesia: the case of Bandung City

Major US electric utility climate pledges have the potential to collectively reduce power sector emissions by one-third

Climate Change (CC) paired with the rapidly growing world population call for new approaches to land management that are both sustainable and accommodate the complex interactions between social systems and environment. To this end, it is important not only to mitigate CC by reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, but also to adapt to the changing environmental conditions Agriculture, forestry and other land uses are responsible for almost a quarter (24%) of global anthropogenic GHG emissions (IPCC, 2014) and hence have a high potential for both CC mitigation and adaptation. Additionally agriculture and forests coexist in the same landscape and are deeply interlinked. Agriculture is central in CC discourses not only because it`s the largest driver of deforestation and forest degradation (Hosonuma, 2012) but also because it`s the sector that is highly impacted by CC, which most often results in a decline in agriculture yield. This highlights the need of innovation towards adaptive agriculture, entailing higher production with fewer inputs. Forests are important because they play a major role in CC mitigation, via carbon storage in their biomass, and in providing ecosystem services that are crucial for agriculture, such as water, pollination and control of pests and diseases. The recognition of interlinkages amongst forests, agriculture and other land uses led to a new line of thinking: the "Climate--Smart Landscape" (CSL) approach (Scherr et al., 2012; CSL is an integrated, landscape--level approach that widens the scope from the farm level to the landscape level, allowing analyses of landscape dynamics that lead to deforestation and assess the trades--off between land uses "Landscape" is defined here in broad conceptual terms: rather than being simply a physical space, it represents a complex system with mutually interacting social, biophysical, human ecological and economic dimensions Additionally, CSL emphasizes stakeholder involvement and simultaneous achievement of multiple objectives (Sunderland, 2012) including food security, Ecosystem conservation, rural livelihoods, CC mitigation and adaptation. The transition to CSL relies upon effective policies and the involvement of stakeholders in different layers of governance, such as policy makers, local farmers, researchers, NGOs and agribusiness companies. Additionally, effective CSL rely upon communication and social learning among these stakeholders. It`s based upon national policies that take into account drivers of deforestation and forest degradation (DD) and upon regional policies that take into account how local stakeholders make land use decisions: without such understanding policies are unlikely to be effective. Moreover, a shift towards CSL relies upon the organization aspect of innovation: CSA adoption, as any other innovation is not only based upon technical knowledge, but also social learning and social organization. Such learning also contributes to promote adaptive capacity, which is based upon continuous learning by doing and trial and error. Additionally CSL can be supported by collective action: a shift towards CSL cannot be achieved by a single individual but it relies upon collaboration among different stakeholders. Despite the interlinkages of forests and agriculture and their role in CC mitigation and adaptation, these sectors have been managed by different initiatives in the policy arena. In particular, two initiatives gained attention to enable CC adaptation and mitigation. The first one is the United Nations Collaborative initiative on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation, conservation of forest carbon stocks, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of carbon stocks (REDD+). REDD+ is a potentially powerful vehicle for stimulating developing countries to practise mitigation by reducing GHG emissions and also to implement adaptation measures through sustainable forest management. REDD+ incorporates safeguards as well, such as requirements for transparency, participation, protection of biodiversity and the rights of local people (UNFCCC, 2011). The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) emphasizes that co--benefits should be promoted while implementing REDD+ and that 'the needs of local and indigenous communities should be addressed' (UNFCCC, 2007: 8). Although REDD+ is increasingly acknowledging the importance to address drivers of DD, its emphasis is mainly on CC mitigation and forest preservation rather than CC adaptation. The second one is Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) initiative, initiated by FAO with the aim of achieving the triple wins of CC mitigation, adaptation and food security. CSA involves the use of 'climate--smart' farming techniques to produce crops or livestock, which could help lowering deforestation for agricultural use as well as enhancing productivity, build resilience to CC and mitigate the GHG emissions (Meybeck, 2013). Although CSA represents a step forward towards greater integration of adaptation and mitigation, its emphasis in practice is mainly on agricultural goals and CC adaptation (Graham, 2012) rather than on CC mitigation goals.

Climate policy has a strong influence on policy processes at national levels in Indonesia, while other policies with a focus on air quality improvement are being implemented at local levels. Indonesia as a developing country has committed to reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by 29 percent by the year 2030. This calls into question the extent to which cities and local governments can cope with the challenges of climate change mitigation. The purpose of the research is to find out the extent to which local air pollution reduction policies can contribute to the climate change mitigation program. The research design involved an empirical case study on governance and policy relevant to climate change efforts to lower GHG in Bandung City, Indonesia. The study evaluated the air quality improvement and the climate change mitigation programs using the actor-based framework of the Contextual Interaction Theory (CIT). The governance and stakeholder characteristic of climate change mitigation were also analysed using the structural context part of the CIT framework. The result shows that air quality improvement policy is implemented separately from climate policy; the latter operates at the national level and the former at the local level. By looking at the actor interaction analysis, the study concludes that a more holistic environmental policy approach would be more efficient at reducing local air pollution and contributing to the mitigation of climate change.

Taking Stock of Strategies on Climate Change and the Way Forward: A Strategic Climate Change Framework for Australia

Globally, agriculture is directly responsible for 14% of annual greenhouse gas(GHG) emissions and induces an additional 17% through land use change, mostlyin developing countries (Vermeulen et al 2012). Agricultural intensification andexpansion in these regions is expected to catalyze the most significant relativeincreases in agricultural GHG emissions over the next decade (Smith et al 2008,Tilman et al 2011). Farms in the developing countries of sub-Saharan Africa andAsia are predominately managed by smallholders, with 80% of land holdingssmaller than ten hectares (FAO 2012). One can therefore posit that smallholderfarming significantly impacts the GHG balance of these regions today and willcontinue to do so in the near future.However, our understanding of the effect smallholder farming has on theEarth’s climate system is remarkably limited. Data quantifying existing andreduced GHG emissions and removals of smallholder production systems areavailable for only a handful of crops, livestock, and agroecosystems (Herrero et al2008, Verchot et al 2008, Palm et al 2010). For example, fewer than fifteenstudies of nitrous oxide emissions from soils have taken place in sub-SaharanAfrica, leaving the rate of emissions virtually undocumented. Due to a scarcity ofdata on GHG sources and sinks, most developing countries currently quantifyagricultural emissions and reductions using IPCC Tier 1 emissions factors.However, current Tier 1 emissions factors are either calibrated to data primarilyderived from developed countries, where agricultural production conditions aredissimilar to that in which the majority of smallholders operate, or from data thatare sparse or of mixed quality in developing countries (IPCC 2006). For the mostpart, there are insufficient emissions data characterizing smallholder agricultureto evaluate the level of accuracy or inaccuracy of current emissions estimates.Consequentially, there is no reliable information on the agricultural GHG budgetsfor developing economies. This dearth of information constrains the capacity totransition to low-carbon agricultural development, opportunities for smallholdersto capitalize on carbon markets, and the negotiating position of developingcountries in global climate policy discourse.Concerns over the poor state of information, in terms of data availability andrepresentation, have fueled appeals for new approaches to quantifying GHGemissions and removals from smallholder agriculture, for both existing conditionsand mitigation interventions (Berry and Ryan 2013, Olander et al 2013).Considering the dependence of quantification approaches on data and the currentdata deficit for smallholder systems, it is clear that in situ measurements must bea core part of initial and future strategies to improve GHG inventories and

Identifying effective agricultural management practices for climate change adaptation and mitigation: A win-win strategy in South-Eastern Australia

Cities as global centers of consumption and production often are a significant and growing source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. At the same time, local authorities are increasingly taking action on climate change by focusing on reducing GHG emissions and efficiency improvement opportunities. To assess and reduce the overall greenhouse gas emission level from an urban area, it is necessary to identify all the activities and processes which generate these emissions. GHG inventory gives an opportunity to get wider knowledge for city’s community about spatial emission processes and emissions contribution of key sources categories at the local scale. Inventory is being used for decision-making purposes and strategic planning in emission reduction policy. The goal of this paper was to clarify the major methodological challenges of GHG monitoring at the urban level. The paper is based on the discussion of different methods and approaches to assessing GHG emissions at the local level. It is presented sectoral GHGs emission trends in selected urban areas and compared CO2 emission level in different countries and metropolises and variable European cities guidance. The study determines the inventory tools of GHGs emission taking into account the characteristics of main sources at local levels.

Climate Change and Health: Strengthening the Evidence Base for Policy

The Earth's surface temperature is steadily increasing due to the accumulation of greenhouse gases, a phenomenon known as global warming. Human activities are the root cause of this significant global issue. Reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions is one of the most critical actions in climate change mitigation. Organizations can engage in activities that promote change and reduce greenhouse gases by acknowledging the significance of addressing climate change. By reducing GHG emissions and promoting the use of renewable energy, organizations can begin to address environmental issues. Therefore, the purpose of this investigation is to assess the reduction of GHG emissions in an educational institution by substituting electricity consumption from the electrical grid with renewable energy in the form of a solar PV rooftop on-grid system. The School of Renewable Energy's GHG emissions were assessed, covering three scopes of GHG emissions activities: direct emissions, indirect emissions, and other indirect emissions. The organization's activity data were collected over a 12-month period. Without installing a solar panel system, the organization reported total GHG emissions of 310.40 tCO2e, relying solely on imported electricity for internal use. The highest GHG emissions were from Scope 2, amounting to 239.38 tCO2e, primarily due to electricity importation. Scope 3 had the second highest GHG emissions, totaling 65.76 tCO2e, resulting from employee commuting and the use of purchased goods such as paper and tap water. Scope 1 had the lowest GHG emissions at 5.26 tCO2e, produced by the combustion of diesel and gasoline in both stationary and mobile sources, as well as CH4 emissions from the septic tank. The percentage of GHG emissions from Scope 2 activities was 77.12%, which was considered to have a significant environmental impact and contribute to global warming. This was because 478,851 kWh of electricity were imported. The installation of on-grid solar cells for power generation reduced imported electricity to 113,120 kWh. Consequently, GHG emissions from Scope 2 decreased to 56.55 tCO2e, leading to an overall reduction in the organization's GHG emissions to 127.57 tCO2e. The organization's GHG emissions decreased by 182.83 tCO2e as a result of using alternative energy to generate electricity. This assessment can serve as a database for educational institutions and prepare the government to report greenhouse gas emissions. Furthermore, it can serve as carbon credits for trading and exchanging carbon with other organizations to offset GHG emissions from various activities. In addition, it endorses the government's goal of achieving carbon neutrality and net zero emissions in the future.

Chapter 6: Insurance industry

Togo, in west Africa, is vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, but has made a negligible contribution to causing it. Togo ratified the Paris Agreement in 2017, committing to submit Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) that outline Togo's climate change mitigation commitment. Togo's capital, Lomé, as well as other areas of Togo have ambient air pollutant levels exceeding World Health Organisation guidelines for human health protection, and 91 % of Togolese households cook using solid biomass, elevating household air pollution exposure. In Togo's updated NDC, submitted in 2021, Togo acknowledges the importance and opportunity of achieving international climate change mitigation targets in ways that improve air quality and achieve health benefits for Togo's citizens. The aim of this work is to evaluate priority mitigation measures in an integrated assessment of air pollutant, Short-Lived Climate Pollutant (SLCP) and Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions to identify their effectiveness in simultaneously reducing air pollution and Togo's contribution to climate change. The mitigation assessment quantifies emissions for Togo and Grand Lomé from all major source sectors for historical years between 2010 and 2018, for a baseline projection to 2030 and for mitigation scenarios evaluating ten mitigation measures. The assessment estimates that Togo emitted ~21 million tonnes of GHG emissions in 2018, predominantly from the energy and Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use sectors. GHG emissions are projected to increase 42 % to 30 million tonnes in 2030 without implementation of mitigation policies and measures. The implementation of the ten identified priority mitigation measures could reduce GHG emissions by ~20 % in 2030 compared to the baseline, while SLCPs and air pollutants were estimated to be reduced more, with a more than 75 % reduction in black carbon emissions in 2030. This work therefore provides a clear pathway by which Togo can reduce its already small contribution to climate change while simultaneously achieving local benefits for air quality and human health in Togo and Grand Lomé.

Well-to-wheel greenhouse gas emissions of electric versus combustion vehicles from 2018 to 2030 in the US

Problem: Mitigating the production of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and developing strategies to prepare for changes in climate is an important challenge to the transportation planning profession. Purpose: This article identifies the research needed to inform planning practice on the relationship between transportation and climate change. Methods: I chaired the panel that prepared a recent Transportation Research Board special report on research needs related to reducing GHG emissions from the transportation sector and adapting transportation systems to climate change. The report considered needs both for short-term policy guidance and for longer-term research into fundamental relationships between GHG emissions, climate change, and transportation. Here, I review those findings and highlight the questions of greatest importance to planning. Results and conclusions: Additional research is needed on: the range of GHG impacts; how and whether to consider indirect GHG impacts; the sensitivity of GHG emission estimates to variations in critical assumptions; the range of GHG reduction strategies that should normally be analyzed; the level of GHG analysis appropriate for small-scale planning studies; whether to use lifecycle or operational GHG; how to define a preferred scenario; the extent to which reducing GHG emissions affects other goals and priorities; and the costs and tradeoffs associated with options for mitigating GHG emissions. This research should yield policy direction for planning practice on: how to rank GHG reduction compared to other transportation goals; what state or federal requirements for GHG planning will be and how they will relate to regional and local policy goals and constraints; what new information analysis and evaluation should produce; what changes will be needed in data collection, models, and methodologies to yield this; and whether changes will be needed in interagency consultation and public involvement. Takeaway for practice: I recommend a comprehensive research program that addresses these questions, reduces uncertainty about relationships between transportation and GHG emissions, and informs planners and others about the consequences of potential transportation strategies. Research support: None.

There is a growing body of literature that examines the role of local governments in addressing climate change vis-a-vis mitigation and adaptation. Although it appears that climate change mitigation strategies - in particular those addressing energy issues - are being adopted by a large majority of local governments, this cannot be said of climate change adaptation. This paper explores the uptake of these two types of climate change policy by local governments in the Netherlands. The central research question is: What lessons can be drawn from comparing the adoption and implementation of local climate change mitigation policies with local climate change adaptation policies in the Netherlands? Our paper contributes to the body of literature on climate change policy implementation, drawing particular attention to the ongoing debate on the institutional dimension of the adaptation-mitigation dichotomy. A comparative case study research design was chosen to study the adoption and implementation of climate change (i) mitigation and (ii) adaptation policies by local governments in the Netherlands during the period 1998 to 2013. The data involved 89 expert interviews and secondary data sources from four research projects conducted by the present authors on local climate change policy implementation. Most Dutch municipalities have local climate change policies that address mitigation. Local governments pay relatively little attention to adaptation. The difference is mostly due to the take-up of central government-led policy support schemes aimed at the vertical integration of climate change mitigation policies. Moreover, mitigation is typically framed as an ‘energy’ issue whereas adaptation is framed as a ‘water’ issue. This has far-reaching consequences. Climate change adaptation has never been prioritized, nor has it been supported with properly funded policy support schemes. In the realm of local climate change policies, adaptation is still considered an ‘add-on’ to climate change mitigation policy. Moreover, adoption and implementation of both adaptation and mitigation suffers from institutional inertia in Dutch local policy practice.

GHG action zone identification at the local level: Emissions inventory and spatial distribution as methodologies for policies and plans