A golden age before serfdom? The human capital of Central-Eastern and Eastern Europe in the 17th-19th centuries

We trace the development of numeracy in Poland and Russia from the early 17th century onwards, and numeracy in Belarus, Ukraine, and Lithuania from the 18th century onwards. The fact that western Poland was doing relatively well during the 16th and early 17th centuries, but was not able to converge to Western European levels during the 17th, 18th, and early 19th centuries, and even fell back relative to Southern Europe during this period, might support the hypothesis that the second serfdom development was one of the core factors delaying Eastern European human capital accumulation. The major wars in the region also had a devastating effect on numeracy levels.

The publication, based on the study of biographical and autobiographical information, characterizes the educational, professional artistic, and educational activities of Ukrainian artists of the middle 19th and early 20th centuries. An analysis of the role of artists as active participants in the national, cultural, intellectual, and social life of Ukrainian society is presented. The author has studied not only the artistic heritage of artists, but also their multifaceted activities, which covered educational, journalistic, and organizational spheres. The article highlights theoretical positions on the educational activities of Ukrainian artists, which are illustrated by specific examples of their experience and influence on the state of society and professional and general education in Ukraine in the 19th - 20th centuries. The author touches on the problems of the direction of the high society of the middle 19th - early 20th centuries. on the development of Ukrainian culture and education; highlights biographical and autobiographical information about Ukrainian artists of the 19th - 20th centuries; reveals the role of the educational activities of Ukrainian artists, their influence on the formation of public opinion; focuses on the relationship between artistic activity with educational and pedagogical practice, the organization of art circles, schools, the creation of studios and participation in cultural and educational societies. Their pedagogical work in schools, colleges, and academies contributed to the formation of a galaxy of famous Ukrainian artists who continued the national artistic and educational tradition of their predecessors. The work also highlights the problem of self-identification of Ukrainian artists as educators and public figures, since art is considered a powerful tool for influencing and shaping public opinion, a means of broadcasting the idea of national revival, social and cultural renewal of the state. Artists took the position not only of creators of aesthetic values, but also of leaders of the national idea, founders of an intellectual space capable of uniting society around common ideological values. The publication highlights the need to understand the heritage of Ukrainian artists of the middle 19th and early 20th centuries not only as artists, but also as outstanding figures of education, who contributed to the formation of national identity with their work.

Music and choreography interaction in the stage dances of musical theater productions of the 17th – the first half of the 18th century

Today Vasyuchyn is a small village with about one thousand inhabitants. The settlement had urban status and was one of the famous craft centers in the past. There was a quarry here, where high-quality natural alabaster stone was mined and processed. Vasyuchyn alabaster had a snow-white color and was famous as a beautiful material for decorating walls, carving sculptures, tombstones and decorative architectural details. Actually, Vasyuchyn alabaster was called in the 17th century "Ruthenian marble" and products made from it were exported abroad. A small alabaster industry operated here at the beginning of the 20th century. The ancient history of the manufactory is unknown to current residents. In this regard, the publication aims to reveal the history of the settlement and perform a hypothetical reconstruction of its architectural and planning structure at the time of the 17th century. A special task is to determine the location of the former Vasyuchyn alabaster manufactory, whose activities were associated with famous sculptors and entrepreneurs of the late 16th and early 17th centuries - Herman van Hutte and Heinrich Horst. The quarry and workshop for the production of alabaster stone sculptures have probably been operating in Vasyuchyn for a long time, but the Dutch masters are responsible for raising it to a new artistic level. Vasyuchyn is one of the lost towns of Galicia. In the 14th-17th centuries, it was a private town with a very rich history. Although the history of Vasyuchyn was quite short from 1444 to 1620, its urban structure was developed and did not differ from neighboring settlements with a city rights - Knyahynychi, Khodoriv, Zhuriv, etc. In the western part of the settlement there was a midtown with a small square market square and a church. A feature of Vasyuchyn was that a mill was located next to the market square. The midtown of Vasyuchyn was surrounded by water obstacles on all sides. The water wheel created natural favorable conditions for defense. The system of defensive ramparts covered the midtown from the western and southern sides. Assessing the remains of the ramparts, which have survived only in the western part of the settlement, we attribute them to the bastion system of fortifications of the Old Dutch school. The mid was probably fortified at the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries, when an alabaster factory operated here. The urban structure of the city belonged to the so-called conjugated type of cities, when the castle and the midtown formed a combined defense system. Vasyuchyn Castle had two phases of development. The older defensive yard was located on an artificial island in the middle of a swampy Swirzh river valley.The remains of earthen ramparts have survived from this object. The new castle was located in the southern part of the midtown. Unfortunately, no buildings or fortifications have survived from it. A palace complex with a manor house was planned on the site of this object at a later time. Its planning structure reflected in the draft plan of the settlement from 1846. In order to reconstruct the architectural and spatial structure of the castle, which probably had a Renaissance character, it is necessary to conduct deeper historical and cartographic studies. The town of Vasyuchyn in the 16th-17th centuries should be attributed to the conditional artistic capitals of the Renaissance in Galicia. The products of the alabaster workshop exported to the many cities of Eastern and Central Europe. Artistic works made of Vasyuchyn alabaster noted in Kraków, Warsaw, Poznan, Wroclaw, Czarnów, Rymanów, etc. Many works made for local shrines - in the cities of Lviv, Sambir, Felshtyn, Uniw, etc. The revival of the alabaster industry, especially in the direction of using alabaster stone in an artistic aspect, can be the foundation of a new economic progress of the community.

The compositional features were considered and the portals of the facades of buildings of the late 19th and early 20th centuries were classified. in Kyiv. Their symbolism, structure and structural construction, stylistics and characteristic architectural and decorative features were studied. The purpose of the study: to investigate and analyze the compositional, stylistic and semantic features of the portals of the facades of buildings of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. in Kyiv, to develop the principles of classification of portals and conduct their classification. Methodology. The research was conducted on the basis of the following methods: empirical, theoretical and empirical-theoretical. The empirical method includes observation, photo-fixation, graphic sketches and constructions, comparisons and generalizations. Theoretical techniques include: going from the abstract to the concrete, abstraction, concretization, identification and separation. Most of the work was carried out using empirical and theoretical methods. The results. Photographs, graphic sketches and classification of building portals of the late 19th and early 20th centuries were carried out. in Kyiv based on the developed compositional-constructive and stylistic principles of classification. It was found that the portals are located mainly on the main compositional axes of the facades of historical buildings, namely on the main vertical divisions, which are highlighted by risalites, bay windows, attics, towers and often changed scale and shape of windows. The role of the portals in the overall composition of the building and the problem of violation of the compositional integrity of the facades due to the replacement or destruction of individual parts and elements of the portals have been revealed. In particular, as a result of unsuccessful repairs and renovations in some buildings of the historical center, the entrance doors were replaced with faceless, rough, unscaled ones, which distorted not only individual facades, but also entire sections of the urban environment. The scientific novelty and practical significance of the research lies in the identification of the compositional and semantic features of the portals of the facades of Kyiv buildings of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, as well as in the detailed analysis of the compositional structure, constructive and stylistic components of the portals. A scientific novelty is the developed classification of the portals of the historical buildings of Kyiv. The research will contribute to the deepening of theoretical and practical knowledge about the peculiarities of Kyiv portals of the specified period, which can be used in the restoration and reconstruction of buildings of the late 19th - early 20th centuries. in Kyiv. The developed classification of portals will be a useful educational reference material for students - future architects and designers who are interested in the peculiarities of Kyiv's historical buildings.

During the 19th and early 20th centuries in the Arkhangelsk North, sea fishing and hunting were exercised by artels (collective associations). It can be explained by the region’s severe climate and difficult conditions for fishing and hunting, which make working by oneself impossible. This paper is relevant due to the almost complete lack of studies on the internal organization and legal status of sea fishing and hunting artels on Novaya Zemlya and Spitsbergen in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Moreover, studies on these associations are necessary for further research into the Russian experience of sea bioresource exploitation in the Arctic during the 19th and early 20th centuries. The paper aimed to examine the structure and legal status of sea fishing and hunting artels on Novaya Zemlya and Spitsbergen throughout the aforementioned period. The materials included legal acts that regulated the work of artels in the 19th and early 20th centuries, published sources about fishing and hunting artels on Novaya Zemlya and Spitsbergen, as well as documents kept in the State Archives of the Arkhangelsk Region. To perform the analysis, the author utilized the historical-systematic and historicalgenetic methods. The article dwells on the rules and customs that existed in Novaya Zemlya and Spitsbergen artels during the period under study, revealing how the structure of these associations had been changing. In conclusion, the author identified the applicable area of law for these artels in the 19th and early 20th centuries as well as the principles that contributed to their preservation.

The turbulent past has marked the entire area of Bosnia and Herzegovina, especially its peripheral parts, which were often influenced by violent demographic changes, reflecting on various population structures. The wider area of Podrinje was affected by forced migrations of the Bosniak population during the 19th and 20th centuries. The expulsion of Bosniaks from the Principality of Serbia in the early 1830s significantly impacted the demographic structures of the Bosnian Podrinje region, especially the Osat region. This study does not explore various anthropogeographic changes in the settlement of Pribidol, whether they occurred during normal or forced social events, but rather investigates the process of family formation and households during the 19th century. The most important historical sources used for the mentioned research are: the Ottoman census of male household members of the Srebrenica District in 1850/51, the Ottoman cadaster of 1867/75, the list of residential property owners from 1880/84, as well as the land registry books of the Srebrenica District in 1894. This study explored the families that lived in the settlement of Pribidol during the 19th century. These are the following families: Ahmetović, Aljić, Begić, Dervišević, Džananović, Halilović, Husić, Ibišević, Ibrahimović, Janković, Marković, Mešanović, Mitrović, Muminović, Mustafić, Osmanović, Salkić, and Smajić. In the Muslim area of Pribidol, 19 households, or family households, were recorded, with a total of 79 male individuals, with an average age of 20.1 years. In the then-independent settlement of Pribidol, 15 households were recorded, with 59 male individuals, with an average age of 19.0 years. In the Barakovići mahalla, 3 households were recorded, with 14 male individuals, and in the independent settlement of Zgunja, one household was recorded with a total of 6 male individuals. Therefore, the total population of Bosniak Pribidol was around 160 individuals of both sexes. During the conducted census in 1850/51, only two families had a family surname, which changed in the early 1880s. According to the 1879 census in the settlement of Gaj (Turkish Pribidol), there were 171 inhabitants (93 male individuals) all of Bosniak nationality. There were 25 houses and an equal number of apartments in the settlement, with an average of 6.8 individuals per household. The 1895 census recorded 315 inhabitants (158 male individuals). There were 255 Bosniaks and 60 Orthodox inhabitants. There were a total of 50 houses (2 uninhabited) with 50 households - an average size of 6.3 members. Between 1850/51 and 1895, there was a significant increase in the population of the settlement of Pribidol, especially in the last census of 1895. This growth was conditioned by the settlement of Orthodox inhabitants, who constituted 25% of the total population in 1895. The list of residential property owners from 1880/84 identified three new mahallas (Kadrići, Podševar, and Živkovići) compared to the census of 1850/51. These Bosniak families of the settlement of Pribidol persisted throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, either through male or female lines, except for changes in the family surname among married female inhabitants. Some family surnames ceased to exist in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, either due to the extinction of their male members or their emigration from the settlement of Pribidol. This particularly applies to families with the surnames Ahmetović, Halilović, and Mešanović. The number of households (families) increased among other Bosniak families until the mid-20th century, and some of their members moved to other settlements in the Podrinje region, primarily around the cities of Bijeljina, Bratunac, and Srebrenica.

The 120-year history of the study of medieval ceramics from Bilhorod (other names Akja-Kermen, Asprokastron, Maurokastro, Moncastro, Mokastro) — one of the largest trade centres of the North-Western Black Sea coast in the late Byzantine and Ottoman Ages is analysed in the paper. The site is located in the modern city of Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi, Odessa region, Ukraine. This urban center was formed on the ruins of ancient Tyras in the late 13th — early 14th centuries. There are two stages in its history: the «Golden Horde» — the 1290s — 1370s, when the city was under the protectorate of Ulus Jochi, and «Moldavian» — the last quarter of the 14th century — 1484 when it passed into the possession of the Moldavian rulers, who has erected the large fortress there. In 1484 the site was captured by Ottomans and was renamed as Akkerman. Despite the long terms of archaeological excavations and the significant researched area at the site (more than 4000 m2), the precise dating of pre-Ottoman medieval deposits and ceramics from them, as well as the origin of some groups of the pottery, are still discussed (Teslenko, Myronenko 2022). Therefore, a critical ana­ly­sis of current stratigraphic schemes of the medieval layers together with existing concepts of chronology and classification of medieval ceramic materials were among the aims of this work. As a result, we outline the several main issues in the archaeological study of Bilhorod. Firstly, until recently archaeologists have used a very simplified stratigraphic scheme of cultural layers proposed in the 1970s (S. Kryzhytskyi, A. Kravchenko, G. Boguslavskyi, and others). According to it, the thickest cultural stratum containing three building horizons was associated with the «Golden Horde» period of Bilhorod history, despite finding of Moldavian coins in some contexts. The detailed chronology of these horizons as well as the specifics of ceramic assemblages each of them still are not understandable. «Moldavian» contexts, with some rare exceptions, were not clearly defined also. It was deemed that they mostly have been damaged or destroyed during the fortification works around the middle of the 15th century, as well as during the Ottoman period. So, most of the medieval ceramic finds were dated to the «Golden Horde» times which is not always the case, and the specifics of the material culture of the «Moldavian» city still have remained unclear (A. Kravchenko, G. Boguslavskyi). Secondly, the information about the ceramics assemblages of the site was predominantly incomplete. Ceramic finds are represented in publications mainly without connection to their precise archaeological contexts (A. Kravchenko, G. Boguslavskyi). So despite the abundance of published materials, it is rather difficult to obtain information about the composition of the certain ceramic assemblages. Therefore, it is also difficult to clarify the chronology of the archaeological context based on ceramic data. Thirdly, a detailed description of the technological features of the local wares still has not been represented despite the discovery of the workshops with kilns and wasters in 1960—1970ss. Thus, till recently, mass ceramics ware the origins of which were not clearly defined a priori associated with the products of local workshops. Fourthly, the dating of most ceramic finds was quite wide, for example, within the «Golden Hordes period» or the 14th—15th centuries, without a more detailed chronological gradation (A. Kravchenko, G. Boguslavskyi, I. Karashevich, etc.). This was largely due to the problems with the precise chronology of the cultural layers in general. To summarize it should be mentioned that the work of the previous researchers and archeological materials accumulated for 120 years of excavations are certainly very important and have a rich information potential. Nevertheless, the proposed methods of study and interpretation of these data need a great deal of improvement. At the same time, thanks to our research in collaboration with the «Archeology & Archaeometry» Laboratory (CNRS UMR5138) in Lyon (France), and Dr.HdR. S. Y. Waksman, we have advanced in the study of some mentioned points in the last years. Firstly, one of the authors excavated the archaeological complex of Moldavian period (early 15th century — 1480s) on the territory of the Civil yard inside the fortress in 2017. So, we obtained the possibility to analyze in detail the ceramics materials of this period and clarify the origin of some pottery groups thanks to their archaeometric study in France. We found out, for example, that the most numerous groups of glazed ceramics from the assemblage are not local, as thought before, but come from Crimea. This fact indicates very close trade links between Bilhorod and Crimea during the 15th century. It also turned out that all samples of Byzantine wares originated from the Constantinople workshop Sirkeci (Teslenko, Waksman forthcoming). Thus, we have got the new data on the distribution of its products in the North-western Black Sea Region during the 15th century as well as get evidence of the activity of this workshop probably as far as at least the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople in 1453. Another insight we have got during the revision of the ceramics collections from the previous excavations of one local ceramic workshop. It specialized in the manufacture of glazed pottery and stove tiles. On the basis of the comparative analysis of these finds with the materials from Central and Eastern Europe, we could realize that the products of this workshop, and hence the kilns that served it, can not be dated earlier than the 15th century. So, it worked in the Moldavian time, and not in the «earliest stage of the Golden Horde period», as declared before. This provides the background for reviewing the chronology of the medieval cultural stratums of Bilhorod, which has existed so far. In addition, the samples of finished wares and wasters help to specify the composition of raw materials of one of the subgroups of local ceramics production. Consequently, the further research of both old and current collections of medieval ceramics from Bilhorod will help to clarify the attribution and chronology of ceramic assemblages and archaeological contexts of the site, as well as will contribute to the more fruitful study of the trade and intercultural relations in the region during the late Byzantine — early Ottoman Age.

This paper explores the dynamics behind the rise of religious nationalism in Central Eastern and Southeastern Europe with distinct populist, nativist, and authoritarian overtones. The paper explores the relationship between nationalism and religion today and the broader transformation challenges both within the region and more globally that can shape this relationship. It then looks closer into the historical experiences in the region with regard to the relationship between state and church as well as nationalism and religion, critically analysing how these relations have evolved during nation-state formation in the 19th and early 20th century, under Communism, and in the last three decades. Analysing critically the relevant literature, the paper discusses the entanglements between state and religious institutions as well as between national identity and faith, and how these are mobilised today. The paper argues for the need to consider both internal and external factors in the evolution of the relationship between nationalism and religion in Central Eastern and Southeastern Europe and more broadly.

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, periodic outbreaks of plague occurred in South Asia. Plague epidemics covered the territories of India, China, Iran (Persia), Afghanistan and the Russian Empire. At the turn of the 19th – 20th centuries, the Russian government developed special comprehensive programs to protect the border from the penetration of the terrible infectious disease in the territory of the Turkestan region. Special attention within the framework of those programs was paid to the solution of international political, economic and medical problems related to the sanitary and epidemiological situation. The main objective of the article is to assess the role of the Russian government and scientific community in the development of sanitary and prophylactic measures to combat plague on the border of the Russian Empire with Iran and Afghanistan. Analyzing the documents deposited in the fonds of the Russian State Military History Archive, the author of the study concludes that the measures taken by the government of the Russian Empire to control the plague were generally effective and contributed to the prevention of major outbreaks of the disease in the territory of the Turkestan region in the late 19th – early 20th century

The paper examines the fall of marital fertility in Tasmania, the second settled Australian colony, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The paper investigates when marital fertility fell, whether the fall was mainly due to stopping or spacing behaviours, and why it fell at this time. The database used for the research was created by reconstituting the birth histories of couples marrying in Tasmania in 1860, 1870, 1880 and 1890, using digitised 19th century Tasmanian vital registration data plus many other sources. Despite Tasmania’s location on the other side of the world, the fertility decline had remarkable similarities with the historical fertility decline in continental Western Europe, England and other English-speaking countries. Fertility started to decline in the late 1880s and the fertility decline became well established during the 1890s. The fall in fertility in late 19th century Tasmania was primarily due to the practice of stopping behaviour in the 1880 and 1890 cohorts, although birth spacing was also used as a strategy by the 1890 cohort. The findings provide support for some of the prominent theories of fertility transition.

The Jewish Quarterly Review, XCII, Nos. 3-4 (January-April, 2002) 569-575 Benjamin Ginsberg. The Fatal Embrace: Jews and the State. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998 [1993]. Pp. xii + 286. Paperback $13.00. First time readers will come to Ginsberg's discussion of Jews and politics because of its arresting title—The Fatal Embrace: Jews and the State. Ginsberg seconds Hannah Arendt's (1966) well-known proposition that the relationship between Jews and political power has been the principal trigger for organized antisemitism, therefore, the title, The Fatal Embrace. Ginsberg states his primary thesis thus: "The question with which this book is concerned, however, is not so much the roots of anti-Jewish sentiment as the conditions under which such sentiment is likely to be politically mobilized " (p. 8). Ginsberg, true to his word, does not provide an extensive history of antisemitism so much as he attempts to show the ways in which antisemitism has been used as a political weapon to defeat or take over the established order (p. 10). Ginsberg contends that for decades America's Jews (as was the case with their European counterparts) have been protected and enriched by their political alliances with the state (which they frequently helped build), but that they were also expendable when the reigning order believed itself secure in office and no longer in need of the Jews. Therefore , according to Ginsberg, Jews are and continue to be an expendable political commodity, and anti-Jewish attacks and rhetoric are permanent social artifacts that can be used repeatedly to upset the current political reign. An accomplished writer and political historian, Ginsberg treats the reader to an informative history of European Jews, politics, and antisemitism that ranges over 900 years. I found his discussion of French antisemitism particularly satisfying. His main focus, however, is on Jews, politics, and antisemitism in America from the Civil War period to the early 1990s. In the early years of the 20th century, Eastern European Jews poured into America in huge numbers, and with them came increasing incidents of anti-Jewish behavior. The Jews who had arrived earlier in the 19th century (the Sephardic and German Jews) were already comfortably settled, economically successful, and deeply involved in the American political scene when the new Jewish immigrants arrived by the millions. These well-settled Jews differed in a number of ways from the later immigrants. Significantly, they had encountered very little anti-Jewish animus during the time they had been in the U.S. There were some notable exceptions, such as Grant's Civil War Order #11, which attempted to expel all Jewish traders from the war zone. President Lincoln rescinded it almost as soon as Grant signed the order. Then 570THE JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW there was the well-known refusal on the part of a posh resort in Saratoga Springs, New York, to admit Joseph Seligman and his family in 1877. But America remained remarkably free of anti-Jewish sentiment until the late 19th and early 20th century. In the late teens and early 1920s, antisemitism began to increase noticeably , in no small part because of the efforts of the Immigration Restriction League, America's Nativist Movement, and the warped concepts of the pseudo-science of eugenics. By 1921, it was the U.S. government versus the Jews of Eastern Europe, as well as immigrants from other parts of Southern and Eastern Europe. The Jews had only themselves and their young advocacy organizations (the American Jewish Committee, the American Jewish Congress, and the Anti-Defamation League of B'nai Brith) to defend them from wholesale exclusion. These organizations were unable to prevent the passage of the Johnson-Reed Immigration Restriction Act, signed in 1924, which limited the number of immigrants who could enter America, and particularly restricted the entry of Jews for decades to come. It is from the 1930s that Ginsberg provides his reader with the first in a series of carefully explained examples of the increasing participation of Jews in American government, and the antisemitism that was allegedly part and parcel of that involvement. The Roosevelt administration brought several Jews into its administration and into significant cabinet jobs. Some examples include the Secretary of...

Introduction. The article considers the trends in the development of Soviet historiography of Russian anti-war thought in the second half of the 19th and early 20th centuries. Analysis. The interrelation of the evolution of the views of Soviet researchers on pre-revolutionary pacifism with socio-political changes in the USSR is revealed. The negative assessments of “bourgeois pacifism” expressed by V.I. Lenin had a significant impact on the study of peacekeeping in the second half of the 19th and early 20th centuries. Methods and materials. In the existing historiography, only certain aspects of the problem are considered. Among the most important methods and approaches used in writing this work are the historical-systemic and historical-comparative methods. The source base of the study was primarily scientific works, reference and encyclopedic publications, and journalistic materials. Results. The authors propose to single out three stages in the history of the study of Russian anti-war thought in the second half of the 19th and early 20th centuries in Soviet times. The most distinct features of the first stage (lack of significant research on the topic, harshness, and categorical assessments) emerged in the mid-1920s and were traced until the mid-1950s. Against the background of political changes in the USSR and the growth of public interest in the problem of maintaining peace, there was a serious increase in research interest in the history of Russian anti-war thought. Peacekeeping ideas were considered during this period primarily within the framework of legal, historical, and philosophical studies. The third stage became noticeable at the end of the 1980s, which manifested itself in a significant increase in works on the history of domestic pacifism and its terminological “rehabilitation.” Authors’ contribution. N.Yu. Nikolaev revealed the trends in the development of Soviet historiography of Russian anti-war thought in the second half of the 19th and early 20th centuries. S.P. Ramazanov analyzed methodological approaches and carried out general scientific editing of the article.

In recent decades historians, sociologists and political scientists have attempted to explain why in the late 19th and early 20th centuries some Western countries adopted national corporatist structures while others transformed into liberal market economies. One of the explanatory factors often mentioned is the persistence or absence of guild traditions. Yet how exactly guild traditions influenced the shaping of national political economies largely remains unclear due to a lack of empirical evidence on their 19th-century development. This paper aims to contribute to the debate by investigating the development of various trades in Germany, the United Kingdom and the Netherlands throughout the 19th century. We distinguish six scenarios of what might have happened to crafts during the transition to an industrial economy. Next we focus on the prevalence of these six scenarios in the three countries and their influence on the emerging national political economies. We conclude that the claims put forward in the literature about the importance of guild traditions are only partially correct. By focusing on trades, rather than on the national or local political economy, our analysis demonstrates that in our three sample countries a wide variety of trades – some in which guild traditions survived, others in which these traditions had never existed or were destroyed in the 19th century – existed side-by-side. Decisive in the formation of national political economies and citizenship rights weren’t general national patterns, but which of these trades came to dominate the development of national political economies by the end of the 19th century.

The article presents an analysis of the list of publications cited in the footnotes and text of Chronicum ecclesiasticum Prussorum (Chronicle of the Prussian Church), the seventh book of Deliciae Prussicae, oder preussische Schaubuhne (Prussian Curiosities or the Prussian Theatre), the manuscript by Matthaeus Praetorius (ca. 1635–1704). The manuscript of M. Pretorius’s Chronicle was fund to contain 231 footnotes at the bottom of the pages and more than 100 references in the text itself. M. Praetorius cites 100 authors and approximately 130 publications. From the chronological standpoint, the cited authors range from the 2nd century to 1698, the year of the completion of the Chronicle manuscript. The article discusses the following main groups of the topics and genres of the cited publications: chronicles and histories of the Teutonic Order and the Duchy of Prussia; chronicles and authorial histories published by historians of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania from the 15th to the first half of the 17th century; histories of the European Church; histories of regional Churches; texts of late-antique and medieval Christian theologians; key texts of the Lutheran theological doctrine and some Catholic theological texts of the 16th century; writings by regional theological polemists of the 16th–17th centuries. From the religious perspective, M. Praetorius refers to writings of the Church Fathers, early Christian and medieval theologians, authors representing Lutheran, Catholic (among them Jesuits), Calvinist, Aryan and Czech Brethren Churches of the 16th–17th centuries; he extensively cites texts pertaining to intra- and extra-Lutheran polemical disputes; in the end of the Chronicle he gives an account of the authors who seeked reconciliation within the Lutheran Church or between among Western European Churches. The majority of the cited authors and publications come from Central and Central Eastern Europe. The most often cited publication is the Bible. The texts concerning the Lutheran theological doctrine are cited most extensively. The selection of the sources was determined by the goals of the Chronicle: to write a history of regional Churches (those of Royal Prussia, Pomerania and of the Duchy of Prussia, which had been changing its political status throughout the 17 th century), and thereby it is oriented towards the early Christian and medieval Church historians and theologists, important for the theological disputes that took place in the region in the 16th–17th centuries. In the Chronicle, M. Praetorius cites a representative selection of contemporary and medieval authors writing on the topic of particular importance to him: the possibilities for the Prussians to encounter Christianity and the beginnings of their Christianization. His selection of historians of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania of the 15th–17th centuries is also comprehensive. The foundations of his erudition were laid in the German Evangelical universities and strengthened through independent studies of regional historians’ writings. The list of authors and publications cited by M. Praetorius in the Chronicle shows him as a very well-read, professionally qualified historian. From the broad repertoire of Central and Central Eastern European publications of the 16th–17th centuries, he opts for those that were relevant for his purposes; however, he essentially omits the works that fostered the new history-writing paradigms of the late 16th and 17th century. Fom the contemporary authors, he tends to select the ones who sought reconciliation within the Lutheran Church or among different Western European Churches and thereby laid the foundation for the Pietist and Irenic movements.