A global overview of anatomical science education and its present and future role in biomedical curricula.

Reconsidering laboratory-based anatomy within the backdrop of digital transformation: Bringing an old practice into a new world.

Anatomy educators are focused on designing and developing learning and teaching approaches that provide for the most effective learning experience, lead to measurable learning gain and prepare students for the next phase of their learning journey and career track. The eagerness of educators to evaluate and challenge approaches and pedagogy has seen an exponential increase in scholarship within anatomical education over recent years as demonstrated by the number and quality of published outputs across many educational journals including Anatomical Sciences Education. Such activity bodes well for the provision of effective learning opportunities for students, the continued advancement of evidence-based practice in the teaching of the anatomical sciences, and the ability to adapt and respond to disruptions within the higher education environment.

There is a continued shortage of qualified anatomical sciences educators with a limited number of doctorate programs currently unable to accommodate. While the number of doctoral programs in anatomical sciences is slow to rise, there has been a notable increase in the number of Master's (MS) programs, many highlighting training anatomy educators as one of the program goals. Much of the existing literature documents curricular trends for professional health sciences and PhD programs but no comprehensive information on MS programs in anatomical sciences currently exist. Therefore, the aim of this study was to assess the curricular trends of MS programs in anatomical sciences in North America with emphasis on how anatomy educators are trained at this level. MS programs in the anatomical sciences were identified in professional anatomical organization websites, and Google search engine. Program websites were reviewed based on three criteria: 1)Stand-alone MS program with direct admission, rather than elective component of graduate program, 2) Minimal core curricular requirement of one anatomical science, and 3) A teaching requirement. For programs meeting these criteria, a series of semi-structured interviews were conducted with program representatives by two investigators (COMIRB exempt #19-0608). The 19 interview questions gathered information on curricular/enrollment/student population (8), teaching component (7), and status of anatomy educator training (4). By fall of 2020, a total of 61 MS programs meeting the selection criteria have been identified and interview invitation was extended. To date, curricular data from 20 MS programs are collated. From interviews, 13 programs (13 universities) were confirmed to meet study criteria. Of the 13, 8 were established in the last decade (2011-2020) and 4 the decade before (2001-2010). Program enrollment varied from 3-10 students (8 programs), 11-15 students (3), and 20-25 students (2). In regard to program development rational or program mission, advanced degree prep (7) and training anatomy educators (11) were reported with 4 programs stating both as rationale. While all 13 programs require gross anatomy coursework, just 9 required coursework in four anatomical sciences. The most frequent minimal teaching requirement was teaching assistantship (5 programs), 2 programs required minimum of pedagogical coursework completion, and 5 programs required a combination of pedagogical courses and teaching practicum or assistantship (Table 1). Additionally, 2 programs reported a teaching track and 3 programs reported conferring a teaching certificate, approved by the institution. In this work in progress, large variations in MS programs in anatomical sciences and inconsistent core requirements for pedagogical training were noted. Many of the identified MS programs have been established in the last decade and have varied enrollment rates. With continued demand for anatomy educators the MS-level anatomy programs may present an un-tapped pool of talent however, ensuring content and pedagogical expertise may pose a challenge.

Anatomical science is a fundamental element of undergraduate medical education; thus, it is imperative that the course serves future medical professionals when entering clinical practice. However, anatomical education has faced challenges in recent years including decreased allocated time, increased class sizes and over-stretched staff. Technological advancements in anatomical education may provide relief to these issues. Therefore, exploring clinicians' perspective on the clinical relevance and efficacy of anatomical education, within an African context, can inform its future. This study used a qualitative research approach within an interpretive paradigm. Eight semi-structured one-on-one interviews were conducted with clinicians associated with Stellenbosch University and Tygerberg Hospital. Thematic analysis was employed to analyze the data, creating themes and codes. Trust worthiness of the data was ensured through peer debriefing and member checking. Results reveal that clinicians find clinically relevant anatomy valuable to students. However, some feel that this is not delivered effectively at present. Clinicians see potential for the incorporation of clinical technologies into anatomical pedagogy. Although clinicians are hopeful for new technological developments in anatomical education, concerns were reported about its autonomous nature. This study concludes that although clinically relevant anatomical education is beneficial to students, the time and the resources via which it is delivered should be considered. There is optimism for the future of anatomical education with the advancements of technologically based educational resources, however, new resources should be incorporated with planning and supervision.

Medical and dental curricula, together with anatomical sciences courses, are increasingly having to change, mainly because there is a drive to being what is termed, without adequate definition, "clinically relevant." The concept of "clinical anatomy" has accordingly been invented and it is expected that, at all times, the teaching of anatomy is directly focused on clinical scenarios, meaning almost invariably the disease-based model of medicine and dentistry. Furthermore, students are not expected to have a detailed knowledge of gross anatomy and the time devoted to teaching and learning the subject has decreased significantly. The notion being fostered is that knowledge is not required "just in case" but "just in time." However, the absence of agreed core syllabuses that are internationally accepted complicates a discussion about what is relevant practically and what does not need to be taught. In this article, we critique such an utilitarian and instrumentalist approach to the teaching of gross anatomy within medical and dental curricula. We draw attention to the need to embrace the functionality-based model of medicine and dentistry by returning to an understanding that the role of the medical or dental practitioner is to value health and to restore to functionality the ill person or the pathologically affected region/organ/system. A fuller knowledge of anatomy than is presently taught is regarded as a prerequisite for appreciating normality and health. A further problem with the instrumentalist approach to medical education is that, by concentrating on what is seen to be at the time "useful" or "clinically relevant," there is the danger of undermining, or discouraging, future developments that rely on what contemporaneously seems "useless" and "irrelevant" knowledge. Finally, the reliance instrumentalism has on just what is pragmatic and regardless of scientific validity is contrary to the ethos and practice of a university education that values deep learning and the development of learnèd professions. Clin. Anat. 30:912-921, 2017. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Anatomy, histology, and embryology (or anatomical sciences) provide a framework for understanding normal function as well as disease and its underlying mechanisms. Thus, they are often taught (by basic scientists) in the context of their clinical relevance. Delivery formats and settings vary widely: anatomy, histology, and embryology can be combined in a single course or integrated into other courses at different points in a curriculum. Anatomy labs are taught with the expectation (by students) that faculty know every detail, be it taught in the form of dissection, prosection, or virtually. The uniqueness of teaching contexts in anatomical sciences education can make it challenging to document effective teaching and to obtain feedback from students that provide growth opportunities to develop as an educator. Educators in anatomical sciences are charged with facilitating learning of skills and knowledge that are foundational and can be applied to many health sciences fields. Because anatomical sciences can be taught virtually as well as practically, additional professional development needs arise. But carving out time for development activities is challenging. Some educators teach several different levels of learners, while managing donor programs, and coordinating laboratory use, all competing demands on their time. Simultaneously, curricular changes have reduced anatomical sciences curricular hours to an all‐time low, and education is shifting towards active learning modalities with increased digital learning and reduced classroom and laboratory teaching. These modalities, if not applied expertly, can increase student pushback. Topics explored in this presentation include if and how our methods of evaluating teaching effectiveness have evolved with the changed landscape in which anatomical sciences faculty teach, and how to support faculty in their development as educators by constructive use of student evaluations of teaching.

Continuing education (CE) is an essential element in the life-long learning of health care providers and educators. Despite the importance of the anatomical sciences in the training and practice of clinicians, no studies have examined the need/state of anatomy-related CE nationally. This study assessed the current landscape of CE in the anatomical sciences to contextualize preferences for CE, identify factors that influence the perceived need for CE, and examine the association between supply and demand. Surveys were distributed to educators in the anatomical sciences, practicing physical therapists (PTs), and anatomy training programs across the United States. Twenty-five percent (9 of 36) of training programs surveyed offered CE, certificates, or summer series programs related to anatomy. The majority of PTs (92%) and anatomy educators (81%) felt they had a potential or actual need for anatomy related CE with the most popular formats being online videos/learning modules and intensive, hands-on workshops. The most commonly perceived barriers to participating in CE for both groups were program location, cost, and duration, while educators also perceived time of year as a significant factor. Logistic regression analyses revealed that no investigated factor influenced the need or desire for PTs to engage in anatomy related CE (P ≤ 0.124), while teaching experience and the highest level of learner taught significantly influenced the perceived need among anatomy educators (P < 0.001). Overall, quantitative and qualitative analyses revealed a robust need for CE that strategically integrates anatomy with areas of clinical practice and education. Anat Sci Educ 11: 225-235. © 2017 American Association of Anatomists.

Social media is used by many students at universities, with sites such as Facebook, Twitter and YouTube being the most popular. Initially these social networking sites were mainly used for recreational purposes, but they have been increasingly used in an educational setting. Educators in the anatomical sciences and health professions have utilised many forms of technology to supplement and enhance a student's learning. However, the true effectiveness of using social media in anatomical and health professions education has not been fully explored. It has been hypothesised that social media in anatomical sciences and health professional education could enhance learner engagement, raise morale, relieve anxieties and improve communication. However, the evidence is limited. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to undertake a comprehensive literature review to examine the effectiveness, or otherwise, of these tools when implemented. We used the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) method for reviewing the literature. By using specific keywords and using Google Scholar, PubMed, ERIC and OVID, we performed an extensive literature search to examine the use of social media in anatomical sciences and health professional education. A total of 155 studies were identified in this systematic review, with 99 studies investigating a variety of social networking sites being included. Overall, the evidence is supportive, with 79.8% of the studies supporting the use social media in education. Furthermore, when the use of social media in the anatomical sciences and health professional was investigated, the majority of studies advocated for its implementation. Despite this, there are some factors that limit the significance of these results, and the amount of evidence was indeed limited. Additional research must be carried out if social media is to influence modern pedagogical practices, with more focus on how the intervention affects academic achievement.

IntroductionHuman anatomy is the cornerstone of health sciences education, yet literature over the past 50 years has demonstrated a severe and continued shortage of anatomy educators. Many have postulated that the factors responsible for the dwindling numbers of anatomists are multiple.AimThis study (1) assessed trends in doctorates awarded in anatomy and related fields within the U.S. over the past 48 years and (2) evaluated the modern graduate education‐training paradigm in the anatomical sciences.MethodsRetrospective data relative to the anatomical sciences were compiled from the National Science Foundation (NSF) Survey of Earned Doctorates (SED), an annual census of research doctorates within the U.S. The number of doctorates in anatomy and related fields and the total number of doctorates by sex and race/ethnicity were plotted for trend analysis. Additionally, the number of currently active PhD anatomy training programs within U.S. allopathic &amp; osteopathic medical schools were assessed. Curricula and major characteristics of each active program where evaluated through website searches and phone interviews with program directors. The IRB at UAB did not qualify this study as human subjects research.ResultsSince 1969, the number of PhDs awarded in Anatomy has declined, on average, by 3.3 graduates per year (Max = 163, 1982; Min = 9, 2017). Conversely, doctorates in Cell Biology, Developmental Biology, and Neuroscience have observed marked growth over the past 40 years at rates of 8.0, 4.3, and 31.3 graduates per year, respectively. Males have historically dominated the anatomical fields, but more females received doctorates than males from 2009–2016. The proportion of PhDs in the anatomical sciences awarded to underrepresented minorities (URMs) has steadily increased with an all‐time high of 11.1% in 2015, but still lags behind Science &amp; Engineering (14.1%). The proportion of graduates entering employment directly after graduation declined from a high of 55% in 1969 to the current rate of 21% and is inversely proportional to the number of graduates entering additional training positions, which is 78% currently. As of August 2019, 21 active doctoral programs in anatomy were identified from among 187 institutions affiliated with a medical school. PhD programs were categorized as either Anatomy Education (N=8), Classic Anatomy (N=8), or Anthropology/Evolutionary Anatomy (N=5) programs based on coursework in anatomical science disciplines and education/teaching‐based curricula.Discussion &amp; ConclusionDeclining numbers of anatomy PhD graduates and misalignment between training expectations and job market needs has contributed significantly to the shortage of anatomists. A concerted effort by all stakeholders to increase the diversity and number of anatomy educators is necessary to ensure the future health of the profession.

Faculty qualified to teach in the anatomical sciences are growing scarce just as the need for trained anatomists is greater than ever. Enrollments are surging in anticipation of a large physician shortfall; meanwhile, many anatomists are reaching retirement age. Who will fill the teaching gap? This study assessed trends in doctorates awarded in Anatomy and related fields within the United States (US) since 1969 and evaluated modern graduate education in the anatomical sciences. Data were compiled from the National Science Foundation Survey of Earned Doctorates. The total number of doctorates in the anatomical sciences and number of doctorates by sex and race/ethnicity were plotted for trend analysis. The number of PhD anatomy training programs within US medical schools was also assessed. Curricula and major characteristics of all active programs were evaluated through website searches and program director interviews. While doctorates in cell biology, developmental biology, and neuroscience have grown, the number of PhDs awarded in Anatomy has declined, on average, by 3.1 graduates per year to a 50-year low of only 8 graduates in 2017. Currently, 21 active doctoral programs in anatomy operate within US medical schools and fall into three general categories: anatomy education (n=8), classic anatomy (n=8), and anthropology/evolutionary anatomy (n=5). Without a concerted effort by stakeholders to address the shortage, anatomists may face extinction. Expansion of the anatomy education doctoral degree may represent a necessary evolution of the field to meet job market needs and to thwart the extinction threat.

Building Bridges (BB) is an international outreach initiative to foster collaborations and exchange experiences in anatomical sciences among students, researchers, and educators from Brazil and the US. BB began in April of 2015 with a mini‐symposium at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai. This was followed in November 2015 by lectures, colloquia, and student‐faculty exchange sessions in Sao Paulo (Santa Casa School of Medical Sciences), Ribeirao Preto (University of Sao Paulo School of Medicine, USP‐RP) and Rio de Janeiro (Medical School of the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, UFRJ). Here we report recent BB activities that took place in Rio in November 2017. Presentations were held in the Brazilian National Academy of Medicine (BNAM) and at the Medical School of the State University of Rio de Janeiro (UNIRIO). Dr. Rossano Fiorelli, Member of the BNAM, Chief of the Department of Surgery and Vice Dean of the School of Medicine and Surgery at UNIRIO effectuated the meetings. At the BNAM the event was a Symposium on Advanced Topics in Cervical Surgery. One of us (JL) gave a plenary lecture addressing our current research in developmental and evolutionary anatomy of the larynx, which is funded in part by grants to us from CNPq (Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico/National Council for Scientific and Technological Development). The talk was attended by members of the BNAM, in addition to clinicians, anatomists, and many medical students from Rio. Students representing the academic organizations known as “Anatomy Leagues” awarded JL a special recognition for his, and BB, outreach initiatives, which made this meeting a historic one at the BNAM. At UNIRIO, JL lectured on advances in anatomical and surgical education, and current issues in curriculum design to faculty, resident physicians and students from medical schools in Rio. Following, there was an open exchange and discussion of advances (e.g., use of new technologies such as laparoscopes and robots in teaching in the US) and difficulties (e.g., obstacles in medical education at state universities in Brazil, and shrinking curricular time in the US) in medical education sensu lato in Brazil and the US. The active participation of students, residents, and faculty, including many members of the BNAM, showed a clear and growing interest in the Building Bridges initiatives and the great value of cooperation between the anatomical communities of the two countries.Support or Funding InformationMeeting support funded in part by The Anatomical Record; Research reported funded in part by CNPq grant PDE #249582/2013–9This abstract is from the Experimental Biology 2018 Meeting. There is no full text article associated with this abstract published in The FASEB Journal.

IntroductionAcknowledging the fundamental role anatomy education plays in medical training and taking into consideration the nascence of online anatomy education in Nigeria, we evaluated the current and future perceptions of medical and allied‐health students towards online anatomy education during the COVID‐19 lockdown in Nigeria.MethodsGoogle Form questionnaires were distributed via different social and academic platforms to medical and allied‐health students in Nigeria between September 28 –December 17, 2020, using a purposive sampling. 954 students responded to questions on what they felt about the online anatomy teaching including how it could affect their academic performance in anatomy. Additionally, they were asked to give their opinion of the future of e‐learning in anatomy in Nigeria. The data collected from the study were analyzed using descriptive and inferential techniques.ResultsOut of a total of 954 students who participated in the study, 947 valid responses were recorded. From the responses, most of the students (77.6%) had computer/IT skills. Unexpectedly, many ofthe students (60%) did not favor online learning approaches as effective tools for instructions in the anatomical sciences while more than a half of the students (55%) did not find the online classes in anatomy interesting. On the other hand, a majority (84%) believed that physical classes would have improved their performance in anatomy. Almost all the students (91.5%) believed anatomy educators in Nigeria need advanced skills for online education and that anatomy online teaching needs more advanced technology to be implemented in Nigeria(94.2%).ConclusionAfter evaluating online anatomy education experience during the COVID‐19 lockdown in Nigeria from medical and allied‐health students’ position, it was observed that there was an inclusive negative perception about the suitability and effectiveness of online education with regards to the anatomical sciences in Nigerian medical/health training. Majority of the students indicated that there is need for the enhancement of online teaching and quality training of the anatomy educators. Addressing the challenges that were presented during online anatomy education at the heat of the pandemic is recommended. This will incline science education towards the development and implementation of a workable and sustainable online education model in anatomical sciences for Nigeria.

Anatomical sciences at the University of Edinburgh: Initial experiences of teaching anatomy online

Members of the Anatomical Sciences Section of the American Dental Education Association (ADEA) surveyed North American course directors to assess how undergraduate dental students are taught the anatomical sciences. Web‐based surveys were sent to faculty members charged with teaching anatomy, neuroanatomy, histology, and embryology in the US and Canada. The completed anatomy and neuroanatomy surveys received 100% and 98.5% response rates from the 67 dental schools, respectively. The ongoing embryology and histology survey has had 53 (79.1%) schools respond.The results of these surveys indicate, amongst other things, that: 1) reliance upon medical school faculty and facilities is high; 2) emphasis on clinical topics has increased; 3) a general trend for a decrease in student contact hours is ongoing; 4) the use of computer‐assisted instruction (CAI) tools has increased; 5) a disparity in the number of contact hours reported for anatomical science courses exists among institutions; 6) a pattern of increased use of integrated curricula among dental schools has emerged; and 7) the experience levels of faculty indicate a future need for young faculty competent at teaching in the anatomical sciences.

The anatomical sciences have always been regarded as an essential element of medical education. In Canada, the methodology and time dedicated to anatomy teaching are currently unknown. In an effort to create a comprehensive view of anatomical education in Canadian medical schools, surveys were sent out to course directors and discipline leaders. Participants were asked about gross anatomy, histology, and embryology. Data was collected on total course hours, total classroom hours, large and small group hours as well as laboratory hours for the 2016/17 year. There have been two major changes in the delivery of the anatomical sciences. First, most programs deliver anatomical sciences using an integrative approach. The shift towards integration is also prevalent in the United States of America. Secondly, contact time in the anatomical sciences are at historically low levels. Compared to data published from a similar survey published in 2018, Canada has 72%, 49% and 53% of the hours of gross anatomy, histology, and embryology respectively, compared to the USA. The reasons for the difference between Canadian and USA schools is not known. Possible reasons for the disparity include the steering effects of the CanMEDS framework in Canada and the USMLE (United States Medical Licensing Examinations) Step 1 examination. The CanMEDS framework identifies six core competencies that are meant to ensure that physicians have more of a comprehensive foundation as a medical expert but an understanding of the basic sciences, including anatomy, is not a core competency rather it is assumed to be part of all competencies to some degree. Given there is no explicit role identified for the anatomical, or any other, sciences this may have led to the general decrease in curricular focus. A focus for many medical schools in the USA is student success on the USMLE Step 1 which is focused on basic sciences, including anatomy. Student performance on the USMLE drives curriculum standards. Further investigation is required to determine if the lower amount of anatomical science education received by Canadian medical students affects student performance in clerkship, residency and beyond.This abstract is from the Experimental Biology 2019 Meeting. There is no full text article associated with this abstract published in The FASEB Journal.