A framework for reforming core mechanical engineering curricula in response to the electrification revolution: A case study in automotive thermal sciences

Electric vehicles (EVs) offer a potential solution to face the global energy crisis and climate change issues in the transportation sector. Currently, lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries have gained popularity as a source of energy in EVs, owing to several benefits including higher power density. To compete with internal combustion (IC) engine vehicles, the capacity of Li-ion batteries is continuously increasing to improve the efficiency and reliability of EVs. The performance characteristics and safe operations of Li-ion batteries depend on their operating temperature which demands the effective thermal management of Li-ion batteries. The commercially employed cooling strategies have several obstructions to enable the desired thermal management of high-power density batteries with allowable maximum temperature and symmetrical temperature distribution. The efforts are striving in the direction of searching for advanced cooling strategies which could eliminate the limitations of current cooling strategies and be employed in next-generation battery thermal management systems. The present review summarizes numerous research studies that explore advanced cooling strategies for battery thermal management in EVs. Research studies on phase change material cooling and direct liquid cooling for battery thermal management are comprehensively reviewed over the time period of 2018–2023. This review discusses the various experimental and numerical works executed to date on battery thermal management based on the aforementioned cooling strategies. Considering the practical feasibility and drawbacks of phase change material cooling, the focus of the present review is tilted toward the explanation of current research works on direct liquid cooling as an emerging battery thermal management technique. Direct liquid cooling has the potential to achieve the desired battery performance under normal as well as extreme operating conditions. However, extensive research still needs to be executed to commercialize direct liquid cooling as an advanced battery thermal management technique in EVs. The present review would be referred to as one that gives concrete direction in the search for a suitable advanced cooling strategy for battery thermal management in the next generation of EVs.

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">The energy used for cabin cooling and heating can drastically reduce the operating range of electric vehicles. The energy efficiency and performance of the cabin heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) system depend on the system configuration and ambient conditions. The presented research investigates the energy efficiency and performance of cabin thermal management in electric vehicles. A simulation model of cabin heating and cooling systems was developed in the AMESim software. Simulations were carried out in the standard test cycles and one real-world driving cycle to take into account different driving behaviors and environments. The cabin thermal management performance was analyzed in relation to ambient temperature, system efficiency and cabin thermal balance. The simulation results showed that the driving range can shorten more than 50% in extreme cold conditions. The energy efficiency of cabin thermal management can be improved by using a heat pump and recovering waste heat from powertrain components. According to the simulations results, a heat pump system with an electric heater can significantly reduce the HVAC system energy consumption. In mild ambient temperatures, between -5 °C and 10 °C, the driving range was increased by 6-22% depending on the driving cycle. Waste heat recovery from powertrain components further improved the energy efficiency of the heat pump system resulting in a decrease of 2-4% in the vehicle energy consumption. Simulation results also show that the battery heating in cold conditions can increase the energy consumption more than 20%.</div></div>

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">The Thermal Management of Electric Vehicles differs strongly from the Thermal Management in IC engine driven vehicles. The Air Conditioning Circuit itself has comparable requirements, however, the electric components and their properties lead to new architectures. Essential is at least a chiller for the conditioning of the battery, which needs to be cooled down to the range of summer ambient temperatures. The respective control devices need to fulfill different basic requirements<ul class="list disc"><li class="list-item"><span class="li-label">-</span><div class="htmlview paragraph">Small package</div></li><li class="list-item"><span class="li-label">-</span><div class="htmlview paragraph">Lightweight</div></li><li class="list-item"><span class="li-label">-</span><div class="htmlview paragraph">Low noise</div></li><li class="list-item"><span class="li-label">-</span><div class="htmlview paragraph">Low energy consumption,</div></li></ul></div><div class="htmlview paragraph">to play an important role in the Refrigeration architecture of Electric and Hybrid Vehicles.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">For conventional systems, optimization of package and weight will be achieved by a 75g TXV with a 28 mm thermal head.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">As soon as a battery also has to be cooled, Shut-Off valves will be implemented in the system in order to manage the respective heat loads according to the needs.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">For some system configurations, it is important to have a precise electronic control, which is not following the usually fixed superheat characteristic of a conventional TXV. This is achieved by an extremely lightweight, absolutely noiseless Electronic Valve with 60 g cartridge weight for Cooling power output from 0,5 to 4 ton, i.e. from 1,5 to 14kW max.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph">If the systems get additional functionality such as heat pump operation, it is very advantageous to replace a pair of heavy solenoid valves with a remarkable power consumption of about 15 W per piece by a 2 channel electric switching valve. This valve provides an excellent tightness, very low pressure drop and only 30% of the weight of the solenoid valves. Furthermore the piping and assembly is much more simple and leads to lower refrigerant loss due to a significant reduction of interfaces.</div></div>

The escalating demand for efficient and reliable thermal management in electric vehicles (EVs) necessitates the integration of advanced technologies to address the challenges posed by battery overheating and energy inefficiency. This chapter explores the synergistic application of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning algorithms in optimizing real-time thermal regulation through phase change material (PCM) technologies. By leveraging data-driven predictive models and adaptive control strategies, AI enhances the responsiveness and precision of PCM-based thermal systems, thereby extending battery lifespan and improving vehicle safety. The discussion emphasizes key challenges such as data privacy, algorithmic transparency, and the establishment of governance frameworks to ensure trustworthy and ethical AI deployment in EV thermal management. By the chapter underscores the importance of interdisciplinary approaches combining material science, automotive engineering, and AI to foster sustainable and autonomous thermal solutions. The findings and insights presented herein contribute to the advancement of intelligent thermal management systems, promoting the transition toward cleaner, safer, and more efficient electric mobility.

<div class="htmlview paragraph">The impact on electric vehicle range caused by the thermal load of the passenger compartment is examined in the context of Canadian winters. The thermal capacity of warm batteries after charging represents a low grade heat source that could substitute for the direct consumption of electric power for heating. In addition, an effective thermal management system can increase battery life by regulating differences in battery temperature during charge and discharge cycles. An active heat exchanger system using a low cost aluminum Roll-Bond® panel heat exchanger is examined to determine the feasibility of using the batteries' heat as a thermal source for a heat pump or direct source of heat for the passenger compartment.</div>

The performance and safety of a battery for electric vehicles get worse when the battery temperature is very low or very high. The thermal management system regulating battery temperature consumes considerable electric energy, in particular, for cooling the battery. To maximize the vehicle driving range, control of battery temperature should consider the consumed energy while regulating the battery temperature. In this paper, model predictive control is applied to the battery cooling system. An effective model predictive control (MPC) requires a good but simple system model with proper estimation of near-future disturbances. The components of the battery cooling system are modeled to represent the energy consuming and heat transferring mechanism with some assumptions for the simplicity. The future information is estimated using historical driving data in the stochastic sense. A stochastic model predictive control (SMPC) is designed to minimize the energy consumption with acceptable temperature regulation. The proposed control method shows significantly reduced energy consumption while keeping acceptable temperature regulation performance compared to a typical temperature controller, such as a thermostat-type controller. The MPC with forecasted future information enables preemptive control actions and thus prevents unnecessarily frequent cooling system operations due to instantaneous temperature changes, which reduces energy consumption.

The present paper investigates the potential of loop heat pipe (LHP), with respect to technological merits and application niche, in automotive thermal management. Broadly, LHP design and applicability for hot spot cooling in electronics (local dissipation), and for heat transport over longer distances (remote dissipation) has been proposed and discussed in detail. The basic module in these applications includes loop heat pipe with different shapes and sizing factors. Two types of LHP designs have being tested and results discussed. The miniature version, with 10 mm thick and flat disk evaporator, for cooling electronic control unit (ECU) with 70 W chipset while keeping source temperature below 100 °C limit was evaluated. Two larger versions with cylindrical evaporator, 25 mm diameter and 150 mm length, and heat transfer distances of 250 mm and 1000 mm, respectively, were tested for power electronics and battery cooling, with more than 500 W transport capabilities in gravity field. In conclusions, loop heat pipes will provide an energy efficient passive thermal control solution for next-generation low emission automotive, particularly for electric vehicles (EVs), which have high-level electrifications and more definitive cooling requirements.

Model Predictive Heating Control for Electric Vehicles Using Load Prediction and Switched Actuators

Performance optimization of electric vehicle battery thermal management based on the transcritical CO2 system

Severe energy crisis and environmental pollution are the foremost problems in the world today. Electric vehicles have several advantages over traditional internal combustion engine-based vehicles, such as high energy efficiency and low emissions, which are effective in alleviating the energy crisis and environmental problems. However, the electric vehicles’ performance is greatly affected by temperature. An excessively high temperature during the charging and discharging process may accelerate the degradation rate of a battery cell and shorten its lifespan. In contrast, an excessively low temperature may reduce the battery’s efficiency and affect its discharge capacity. Air-conditioning systems in electric vehicles consume electricity to create a comfortable environment in the passenger compartment. However, excessive temperature of the motor drive will decrease its efficiency. Therefore, the battery, passenger compartment and motor drive system must be maintained at adequate temperatures to ensure the safety, comfort, and economy of the electric vehicles. Previous studies usually focused on a single thermal management system at a time, such as a battery thermal management system, air-conditioning systems in electric vehicles, and motor thermal management system. This means that the coupling relationships between the above-mentioned thermal management systems and the performance analysis of the integrated thermal management system at the vehicle level were not properly investigated. This study focused on the key issues in the construction of an integrated thermal management system for electric vehicles. Firstly, the heat generation models of the battery, passenger compartment, and motor drive system were summarized. Secondly, the existing thermal management methods for these three systems were systematically reviewed. Especially, the research status, operation control, and performance evaluation of the integrated thermal management system were especially analyzed. Finally, the deficiencies of the previous studies were summarized and the research prospects were proposed. It is pointed out that it is necessary to study the accurate heat generation models, develop the compact and efficient integrated thermal management system, and optimize the operation control of the integrated thermal management system under a comprehensive performance evaluation system in the near future.

In this research paper, we investigate the evolving landscape of fast charging technologies and their relationship with thermal management systems in electric vehicles (EVs). With the rapid adoption of EVs, addressing charging time concerns has become critical for enhancing user experience and promoting sustainable mobility. Utilizing a mixed-methods approach, we collected quantitative data from a structured survey of 200 EV owners and potential buyers, complemented by qualitative insights from in-depth interviews with industry experts. The findings indicate a strong preference for faster charging, with 45% of respondents favoring charging times of 0–30 minutes. Moreover, the study reveals that while 55% of participants are aware of thermal management technologies, satisfaction levels with existing solutions remain moderate. This highlights the need for advancements in thermal management to optimize battery performance and lifespan. Additionally, challenges such as battery degradation and infrastructure limitations are discussed, emphasizing the importance of collaboration among stakeholders in the automotive and energy sectors. Overall, this research provides valuable insights for enhancing charging technologies and improving the overall EV ownership experience.

Status and development of electric vehicle integrated thermal management from BTM to HVAC

With the increasing demands for vehicle dynamic performance, economy, safety and comfort, and with ever stricter laws concerning energy conservation and emissions, vehicle power systems are becoming much more complex. To pursue high efficiency and light weight in automobile design, the power system and its vehicle integrated thermal management (VITM) system have attracted widespread attention as the major components of modern vehicle technology. Regarding the internal combustion engine vehicle (ICEV), its integrated thermal management (ITM) mainly contains internal combustion engine (ICE) cooling, turbo-charged cooling, exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) cooling, lubrication cooling and air conditioning (AC) or heat pump (HP). As for electric vehicles (EVs), the ITM mainly includes battery cooling/preheating, electric machines (EM) cooling and AC or HP. With the rational effective and comprehensive control over the mentioned dynamic devices and thermal components, the modern VITM can realize collaborative optimization of multiple thermodynamic processes from the aspect of system integration. Furthermore, the computer-aided calculation and numerical simulation have been the significant design methods, especially for complex VITM. The 1D programming can correlate multi-thermal components and the 3D simulating can develop structuralized and modularized design. Additionally, co-simulations can virtualize simulation of various thermo-hydraulic behaviors under the vehicle transient operational conditions. This article reviews relevant researching work and current advances in the ever broadening field of modern vehicle thermal management (VTM). Based on the systematic summaries of the design methods and applications of ITM, future tasks and proposals are presented. This article aims to promote innovation of ITM, strengthen the precise control and the performance predictable ability, furthermore, to enhance the level of research and development (R&D).

This study presents a practical design and implementation of a Thermal Management (TM) concept for Battery-Electric Vehicles (BEVs) including a novel Human-Machine Interface (HMI). The developed system uses a combination of convective air conditioning and radiation heating to cool down and heat up the passengers efficiently. The proposed contribution can be subdivided into four parts: 1) description of the Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC) system; 2) development of a novel HMI; 3) derivation of an appropriate operating strategy concept; 4) validation of the entire TM system based on a user study using a demonstrator vehicle. The results show that the developed TM concept can substantially support the user to operate the HVAC system more efficiently. A user study was conducted to evaluate passenger comfort and usability. The study revealed that users tend to operate a conventional input panel of an HVAC system inefficiently in some cases. They could achieve better task performance with the new HMI proposed in this study. However, the acceptance of the new concept was rated lower for the new system, as users were already accustomed to the conventional input panel design.

We are at the dawn of a new era for passenger transportation, where internal combustion engine (ICE)-powered cars are bound to be replaced by electric vehicles (EVs). Latest awakening by different governments worldwide regarding global warming has encouraged the development and adoption of novel solutions to reduce CO2 emissions.