A dynamic model of hypothermia as an adaptive response by small birds to winter conditions.

The hypothesis that migratory bird populations are limited during the non-breeding season is increasingly supported by empirical studies that also suggest consequences that carry-over into subsequent seasons. Although variation in food supply is the best supported explanation for non-breeding season limitation, the ecological mechanisms and physiological consequences are not well understood. We both supplemented and reduced Ovenbird (Seiurus aurocapilla) food availability on replicate plots in Jamaica in each of 3 years to determine the direct role of food in limiting the physical condition of Ovenbirds. Annual variation in rainfall and food supply created a natural experiment in parallel with manipulations. Sex and age-classes of Ovenbirds did not respond differently in terms of body condition to either food manipulation or natural variation in environmental conditions, suggesting that this population is not structured by strong dominance relationships. Ovenbird body mass, fat, and pectoralis muscle shape were positively and predictably related to manipulated food availability. Feather regrowth rate also responded positively to food supplementation and negatively to food reduction in the drier of 2 years. Prior to manipulation, annual variation in body mass corresponded to annual variation in food supply and rainfall, providing additional, correlational evidence of food limitation. Since multiple intercorrelated body condition indices of Ovenbirds responded directly to food supply, and since food supply influenced body condition independently of other habitat features, we argue that food is a primary driver of non-breeding season population limitation. Moreover, since these effects were observed during the late non-breeding period, when individuals are preparing to migrate, we infer that food availability likely initiates carry-over effects.

Bird species adapted to variable environments tend to have slow lean tissue growth rates and high fat deposition rates, allowing survival during food shortages. This emphasis on fat deposition may be a fixed physiological trait. Alternatively, tissue allocation may be adjusted facultatively according to the proximate food supply. We consider two models of facultative adjustment that could account for the emphasis on fat deposition: (1) the fat‐priority model, in which no lean growth occurs when food is scarce, and (2) the lean‐priority model, in which a minimal level of lean growth always occurs but nutrients are otherwise allocated to fat deposition. We tested these two models using Welcome Swallows Hirundo neoxena, a species we show to have a variable food supply that is influenced by weather. We reduced food supply to chicks experimentally, by enlarging broods or excluding parents from chicks, and tested for reduction in wing growth (an indicator of lean growth) and mass growth (an indicator of fat deposition). Mass growth was retarded by both manipulations, but not wing growth, corroborating the lean‐priority model. This growth strategy may function not to cope with violent variation in food supply, but to maintain development and symmetry of wings and feathers in the face of moderate variation in food supply. Our results contrast with those of a similar experiment on the Black Noddy Anous minutus, a species with more severe variation in food supply.

Food supply is widely considered to be a major factor in determining life history traits and reproductive performance of birds. However, large spatial and temporal variation in natural available food supply is not always paralleled by proportional changes in energy demand by breeding birds. This necessarily results in variation in the supply–demand ratio and the amount of food available per unit mass of nestling. Because reproductive performance should respond to increases in available supply as a saturation curve, reaching a plateau above a certain threshold of food supply, we predict that variation in supply should change the intensity of selection on reproductive traits. We first tested this prediction using long-term data on nestling growth and survival in Blue Tits (Parus caeruleus) breeding over a gradient of habitat richness in Corsica, France. This long-term data analysis evaluates the effect of variation in food supply available to breeding tits using three surrogate variables: interannual variation in peak caterpillar abundance (caterpillar frass fall), offset between breeding date and peak caterpillar abundance, and natural variation in clutch size. We also used an experimental brood size manipulation (±3 chicks) to test the effect of varying brood demand on nestling growth. Results of the long-term data analysis show that all three variables affect fledging mass and fledging success in poor habitats, while only fledging mass is affected by variation in offset in rich habitats. Moreover, mean annual fledging success and fledging mass is strongly affected by annual variation in peak caterpillar abundance at low levels of abundance, but these effects disappear when food becomes abundant (saturation threshold level of 373 and 560 mg frass·m−2·d−1 for fledging success and fledging mass, respectively). Brood size manipulations confirm these results. In rich habitats, breeding birds can raise three extra chicks without any apparent effects on chick growth, while in poor habitats, chick growth is significantly reduced with brood enlargement. Our study shows that although food limitation can play an important role, it may not always be the primary force shaping life history traits.

Earlier reports suggested that seasonal variation in food-caching behavior (caching intensity and cache retrieval accuracy) might correlate with morphological changes in the hippocampal formation, a brain structure thought to play a role in remembering cache locations. We demonstrated that changes in cache retrieval accuracy can also be triggered by experimental variation in food supply: captive mountain chickadees (Poecile gambeli) maintained on limited and unpredictable food supply were more accurate at recovering their caches and performed better on spatial memory tests than birds maintained on ad libitum food. In this study, we investigated whether these two treatment groups also differed in the volume and neuron number of the hippocampal formation. If variation in memory for food caches correlates with hippocampal size, then our birds with enhanced cache recovery and spatial memory performance should have larger hippocampal volumes and total neuron numbers. Contrary to this prediction we found no significant differences in volume or total neuron number of the hippocampal formation between the two treatment groups. Our results therefore indicate that changes in food-caching behavior and spatial memory performance, as mediated by experimental variations in food supply, are not necessarily accompanied by morphological changes in volume or neuron number of the hippocampal formation in fully developed, experienced food-caching birds.

MEPS Marine Ecology Progress Series Contact the journal Facebook Twitter RSS Mailing List Subscribe to our mailing list via Mailchimp HomeLatest VolumeAbout the JournalEditorsTheme Sections MEPS 444:97-115 (2012) - DOI: https://doi.org/10.3354/meps09430 Spatial and tidal variation in food supply to shallow cold-water coral reefs of the Mingulay Reef complex (Outer Hebrides, Scotland) Gerard C.A. Duineveld1,*, Rachel M. Jeffreys1,2, Marc S.S. Lavaleye1, Andrew J. Davies3, Magda J.N. Bergman1, Thalia Watmough1, Rob Witbaard1 1Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research, PO Box 59, 1790 AB Den Burg, Texel, The Netherlands 2School of Environmental Sciences, University of Liverpool, 4 Brownlow Street, Liverpool, L69 3GP, UK 3School of Ocean Sciences, Bangor University, Menai Bridge, Anglesey LL59 5AB, UK *Email: gerard.duineveld@nioz.nl ABSTRACT: The finding of a previously undescribed cold-water coral reef (Banana Reef) in the Scottish Mingulay reef complex, with denser coverage of living Lophelia pertusa than the principal Mingulay 1 Reef, was the incentive for a comparative study of the food supply to the 2 reefs. Suspended particulate matter (SPM) samples from the surface and bottom water covering a tidal cycle were compared with respect to lipids, pigments, and δ13C and δ15N. Lipid profiles and stable isotope signatures of SPM were compared with those of coral tissue samples. Concurrently, hydrographic measurements were conducted to track the movement of the water masses across both reefs. Between-reef differences in SPM lipid concentrations were small compared to those in coral tissue. Corals at Banana Reef had lower lipid concentrations, pointing to less favourable food conditions than at Mingulay 1. Stable isotopes signatures and lipid profiles showed that corals on both reefs feed primarily on surface algal matter, within the timeframe of our study. At Mingulay 1, fresh microalgae are supplied to the coral reef by local downwelling. This downwelling pulse is tidally advected to Banana Reef. Food conditions observed during this study at both reefs do not explain the between-reef difference in coral coverage. A speculative explanation for the denser coral coverage at the deeper Banana Reef encompasses the slightly lower temperature that exhibits lower metabolic stress on corals, in combination with a higher current speed and particle encounter rate. KEY WORDS: Lophelia pertusa · Cold-water corals · Suspended particulate organic matter · Food supply · Internal wave · Downwelling Full text in pdf format PreviousNextCite this article as: Duineveld GCA, Jeffreys RM, Lavaleye MSS, Davies AJ, Bergman MJN, Watmough T, Witbaard R (2012) Spatial and tidal variation in food supply to shallow cold-water coral reefs of the Mingulay Reef complex (Outer Hebrides, Scotland). Mar Ecol Prog Ser 444:97-115. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps09430 Export citation RSS - Facebook - Tweet - linkedIn Cited by Published in MEPS Vol. 444. Online publication date: January 10, 2012 Print ISSN: 0171-8630; Online ISSN: 1616-1599 Copyright © 2012 Inter-Research.

Among species which feed their young, particularly those with large size dimorphism, parental investment trade-offs between growth and survival of male and female offspring, and parental fitness, may be significant (sensu Trivers & Willard 1973). In contrast, little is known about the effects of variation in food supply on sex-differential growth and survival in species with precocial young. In such cases, where parental investment is generally smaller, the trade-off is more proximate ; how should individual offspring allocate resources to maximize their fitness. We examined this question by assessing the effects of seasonal variation in feeding conditions on growth and survival of male and female offspring of an obligate avian herbivore with precocial young, the lesser snow goose (Anser caerulescens caerulescens L.), using long-term observational data from 1969 to present. Snow geese show limited sexual size dimorphism, with males being 2-6% larger at all ages post-hatching. Growth of snow goose goslings has been previously shown to be extremely sensitive to variation in food supply, and previous analysis of this species indicated even small differences in growth rates may significantly affect the probability of survival. We found a highly significant difference in the relative body mass, but not structural size, of male and female goslings at fledging in response to seasonal declines in food supply, with males showing a greater proportional fledging mass decrease than females. Despite growth differences there was no detectable seasonal variation in gosling survival between the sexes, and no difference between male and female goslings in survival to fledging overall. Since the analysis involved only goslings which had survived to fledging, it can be difficult to determine if the seasonal decrease in dimorphism reflects either (i) seasonal differences in relative growth of male and female goslings, or (ii) increasing mortality of larger male goslings later in the season. However, the failure to find any sex-specific differences in mortality generally favours the hypothesis of proportionately slower growth of males hatched later in the season. The lack of sexual differences in survival despite measurable differences in sex-specific growth may reflect some level of adaptation to maximize the probability of survival of each sex. However, the possibility that the proportionately greater seasonal declines exhibited by males may reflect a simple constraint, rather than an adaptation, cannot presently be ruled out.

We studied recruitment age (i.e. the age that a gull bred for the first time) and the probability that an adult reproduced during its life in three cohorts of Western Gulls Larus occidentalis breeding on southeast Farallon Island. We examined the effects of sex, hatching date, hatching order, brood size and annual variation in food supply during the recruitment period. Modal recruitment ages of males and females were 4 and 5 years, respectively, a difference that was significant. None of the factors examined, including hatching date, hatching order and brood size, had a significant effect on recruitment age. The probability of breeding in males who experienced low food supply in their fourth and fifth years was lower than that of males who experienced favourable food supply in their fourth and fifth years. Recruitment probability (the proportion of the sample group that recruited among those available to recruit during a given year) of 4‐ and 5‐year‐old males was lower in the food‐poor 1983 El Nino than in years of favourable food supply. The only variable affecting recruitment probability of females was age: recruitment probability was greater among 5‐year‐olds than 4‐year‐olds. Recruitment age in males was more sensitive to annual variation in food supply, probably because females have more difficulty recruiting due to an excess of adult females in the population and because of the different roles in reproduction in which males are primarily responsible for provisioning chicks and maintaining the territory.

Food availability is likely to influence body condition and, in turn, fitness. The intensity of this response may vary between populations of the same species on a small spatial and temporal scale. We used 5 yr of data from 6 Eurasian red squirrel Sciurus vulgaris populations from the southern Alps to explore differences in body size and body mass among neighbouring populations, in relation to habitat type and variation in food supply. We also investigated sexual dimorphism in these traits and whether phenotypic variation affects local survival and female reproductive success. Mean hind foot length, a measure of body size, did not differ between sexes but differed between areas. Seasonal variation in body mass was small with no evidence for fattening in autumn. Females were slightly heavier than males, but this difference was largely explained by mass gain of females during reproduction. The size of conifer seed crops, the major food supply, varied strongly over years and between habitats, but this variation corresponded only weakly with autumn body mass. Differences in size and mass between populations were partially explained by habitat-related differences in body size and variability of seed-crops, suggesting differential selection for smaller squirrels in spruce-larch forests against selection for larger and heavier animals in mixed broadleaves and conifer forests and in Scots pine forests with more stable seed production. The probability of reproduction by females increased with body mass, but varied strongly between habitats and years, with more females reproducing in years with rich seed-crops. In both sexes, body mass positively affected probability of settlement and length of residency. Our results suggest that in temporally variable environments that differ in overall amount of food resources, individual variation in body mass is related to habitat type, and that having a relatively high body mass, within each population, positively affects male and female settlement success and local survival, and female reproductive success.

Among the range of determinants of post‐fledging survival in altricial birds, the energy supply to the growing juveniles is likely to play a central role. However, the exact mechanisms shaping post‐fledging survival are poorly understood. Using a food supplementation experiment, we determined the effect of variation in food supply on the survival of juvenile Little Owls Athene noctua from hatching to 2 months post‐fledging. Experimental broods were food‐supplemented for 36 days during the nestling and the early post‐fledging period. The fate of 307 juveniles (95 of them provided with extra food) was determined by nest monitoring and radiotelemetry. In unsupplemented birds, the rates of survival measured at 5‐day intervals were lowest during the nestling stage, remained low during the early post‐fledging stage and steadily increased after about 2 weeks post‐fledging. Food supplementation substantially increased nestling survival, but we detected no direct treatment effect on post‐fledging survival. Instead, we found a strong indirect effect of food supplementation, in that fledglings of good physical condition had markedly higher chances of surviving the post‐fledging period compared with those in poor condition. Experimental food supplementation increased survival over the first 3 months from 45% to 64.6%. This suggests that energy reserves built up during the nestling stage influence post‐fledging survival and ultimately parental reproductive output. The low nestling and post‐fledging survival shows that the early life‐history stages constitute a crucial bottleneck of reproductive ecology in Little Owls. The strong treatment effects on the number of independent offspring indicate that natural variation in food supply is an important determinant of spatio‐temporal patterns in Little Owl demography.

Food availability is likely to influence body condition and, in turn, fitness. The intensity of this response may vary between populations of the same species on a small spatial and temporal scale. We used 5 yr of data from 6 Eurasian red squirrel Sciurus vulgaris populations from the southern Alps to explore differences in body size and body mass among neighbouring populations, in relation to habitat type and variation in food supply. We also investigated sexual dimorphism in these traits and whether phenotypic variation affects local survival and female reproductive success. Mean hind foot length, a measure of body size, did not differ between sexes but differed between areas. Seasonal variation in body mass was small with no evidence for fattening in autumn. Females were slightly heavier than males, but this difference was largely explained by mass gain of females during reproduction. The size of conifer seed crops, the major food supply, varied strongly over years and between habitats, but this variation corresponded only weakly with autumn body mass. Differences in size and mass between populations were partially explained by habitat‐related differences in body size and variability of seed‐crops, suggesting differential selection for smaller squirrels in spruce‐larch forests against selection for larger and heavier animals in mixed broadleaves and conifer forests and in Scots pine forests with more stable seed production. The probability of reproduction by females increased with body mass, but varied strongly between habitats and years, with more females reproducing in years with rich seed‐crops. In both sexes, body mass positively affected probability of settlement and length of residency. Our results suggest that in temporally variable environments that differ in overall amount of food resources, individual variation in body mass is related to habitat type, and that having a relatively high body mass, within each population, positively affects male and female settlement success and local survival, and female reproductive success.

The biomass of the macrobenthic animals living in intertidal flats of the Wadden Sea varies annually and seasonally. However, the variation in prey biomass harvestable by wading birds such as knot Calidris canutus, which feed mainly on the middle range of their prey size classes, is even larger. The majority of first-year Cerastoderma edule, Mya arenaria or Mytilus edulis are too small to be profitable as prey for knot. Yet, by the end of the subsequent growing season, these same prey are too large to be ingested and/or live at a depth that puts them out of reach of the birds' bills. Macoma balthica is a major prey for knot, because (1) its annual spatfall is less erratic than in the other bivalve species, and (2) it grows more slowly, and each cohort is therefore available as food for knot for at least 3 yr. Knot feed in flocks which roam over the feeding area, but they are more often observed in food-rich than in food-poor areas, A similar relationship between bird and food densities was found in one locality, when the annual numbers of knot were compared with the yearly variation in food supply. Since the numbers of knot in the whole area were the same over many years, the birds were apparently able to find other feeding areas when the local food supply was low, i.e. the food supply harvestable by knot (prey not too small, not too large and not too deep) was less than about 4 g ash-free dry weight m-2. Knot arrive in the study area at the end of July and leave after only a few weeks en route to Africa. They depart before d serious decline in the harvestable prey biomass takes place, which results from a decrease in the body condition of individual prey and an increase in the fraction of the prey which burrows out of the reach of the knot's bill.

The influence of changing food supply on the lipid biochemistry of deep-sea holothurians

Development Cold, dehydration, variation in food supply—these are all potential environmental stressors that organisms must face. Often, organisms have mechanisms that can accommodate such challenges, at least to a degree; however, some challenges, particularly those that are rare, can have

Colonies of Common Puffins (Fratercula arctica), differing in numbers of breeding Herring Gulls (Larus argentatus) present, also differed in puffin numbers, burrow placement, and burrow activity rate. All differences indicated that puffins avoided gulls. Sites differing in gull numbers did not differ, however, in puffin fledging success or weights of fledged chicks. Chick weights and fledging success were low. The pattern of weight gain by chicks was irregular over the season, although consistent among sites for individual periods. These results imply that food usually was hard to find, although occasionally locally abundant. Pressures on puffin reproductive efforts due to variation in food supply and levels of kleptoparasitism do not appear to be additive; rather, low food availability decreases the effect of gull kleptoparasitism as well.

Food supply fluctuations constrain group sizes of kangaroos and in turn shape their vigilance and feeding strategies