A Dust‐penetrated Classification Scheme for Bars as Inferred from Their Gravitational Force Fields

Let’s look at Kepler’s, Newton’s, and Coulomb’s laws again. There are a few things that have escaped our attention. Kepler’s and Newton’s laws show that movement is also necessary for the creation of the gravitational force field. Gravity is a force field induced by motion. Therefore, the gravitational constant G depends on the speed, so we cannot measure it precisely. Based on Coulomb’s and Newton’s laws, it can be understood that gravity and the electric force field are related to each other. The gravitational field can be described using the electric field. Let’s ask some questions about gravity. Can the value of G be determined by calculation? Why can’t we measure the value of G exactly? How can you prove that G is variable? Is there a relationship between the gravitational force field and acceleration? What gives the energy of a gravitational force field? What properties do we know of the gravitational force field? Is there a connection between the gravitational force field and the electric force field? What connects the gravitational force field and the electric force field?

We study the star formation activity of nearby galaxies with bars using a sample of late-type galaxies at and from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. We compare the physical properties of strongly and weakly barred galaxies with those of non-barred galaxies that have stellar mass and redshift distributions similar to barred galaxies. We find that the star formation activity of strongly barred galaxies probed by starburstiness, , , and mid-infrared [3.4]–[12] colors is, on average, lower than that of non-barred galaxies. However, weakly barred galaxies do not show such a difference between barred and non-barred galaxies. The amounts of atomic and molecular gas in strongly barred galaxies are smaller than those in non-barred galaxies, and the gas metallicity is higher in strongly barred galaxies than in non-barred galaxies. The gas properties of weakly barred galaxies again show no difference from those of non-barred galaxies. We stack the optical spectra of barred and non-barred galaxies in several mass bins and fit to the stacked spectra with a spectral fitting code, STARLIGHT. We find no significant difference in stellar populations between barred and non-barred galaxies for both strongly and weakly barred galaxies. Our results are consistent with the idea that the star formation activity of barred galaxies was enhanced in the past along with significant gas consumption, and is currently lower than or similar to that of non-barred galaxies. The past star formation enhancement depends on the strength of bars.

Gravity is the most important force in cosmology. A lot of research deals with it, but we only know its perceptible properties. Two basic descriptions of gravity are accepted today. One is based on classical physics based on Newton\’s theory. The other is the theory of gravity described by Einstein. However, another description of gravity is also possible. Gravitation can also be described in other ways using the equations of Kepler, Newton, Coulomb, and Maxwell. Using their equations, it can be deduced that: The magnitude of the gravitational force field is not determined only by mass. It depends on the speed of the mass. It depends on the size of the gravitational field in which the mass moves Newton\’s and Coulomb\’s laws are equivalent. This has already been determined by several researchers. It was also conducted by Constantin Meis. Newton\’s, Coulomb\’s, Maxwell\’s law can be used to determine a new cosmic constant. It can be counted on in the Solar System, but also in the Milky Way. Denote by μ_2 and √ (μ_2) This constant connects the macro world and the micro or quantum world. This constant can also be calculated using Coulomb\’s and Maxwell\’s equations Maxwell\’s and Coulomb\’s equation can be used to determine the resultant of the associated vibrating charges for each mass and celestial body. Coulomb\’s law can also be used to accurately determine the force effect between masses. Even the force effect between celestial bodies can be determined with it. This is exactly the same as the force effect calculated by Newton\’s law. For a mass of 1 kg, we get exactly Cavendish\’s measurement result with Coulomb\’s law. Already in the 20th century, it was suggested that there is a connection between gravity and the electromagnetic field. This has already been conducted by Constantin Meis and Takaaki Musha and B. Ivanov. Gravitational constant can not only be measured, but also calculated in several ways. This has already been determined by several researchers. The gravitational constant can also be calculated using the mass and its speed. But it can also be calculated using the Coulomb constant and μ_2 The gravitational force field for a given mass or celestial body can be calculated using √(μ_2) and the charge of the mass. The speed of a given planet can be calculated using its charge and √ (μ_2) Based on the derivations, gravity is a force field that has an electric force field component. Therefore, it can be the carrier medium of electromagnetic waves. And so is the carrier of light If we assume that the gravitational force field is a very high frequency electromagnetic wave, then we also understand that gravity is unipolar.

The method of Gor’kov has been applied to derive general expressions for the total potential and force on a small spherical object in a resonant chamber in the presence of both acoustic and gravitational force fields. The levitation position is also determined in rectangular resonators for the simultaneous excitation of up to three acoustic modes, and the results are applied to the triple-axis acoustic levitator. The analysis is applied to rectangular, spherical, and cylindrical single-mode levitators that are arbitrarily oriented relative to the gravitational force field. Criteria are determined for isotropic force fields in rectangular and cylindrical resonators. It is demonstrated that an object will be situated within a volume of possible levitation positions at a point determined by the relative strength of the acoustic and gravitational fields and the orientation of the chamber relative to gravity. Trajectories of an object from an arbitrary starting position to a final equilibrium position are also discussed.

In a gravitational force field, a bounded orbit of an infinitesimal point mass is called a satellite orbit. The purpose of this paper is to establish a variational theory for the existence of some relative periodic satellite orbits in periodic gravitational force fields. The gravitation field can be generated by a relative equilibrium or a uniformly rotating asteroid. Our approach is to regard the aggregate of primaries together with the small satellite as a restricted full two-body problem, and then look for direct and retrograde relative periodic satellite orbits by direct methods of calculus of variations. Regularity of the action-minimizing satellite orbit is obtained by providing satisfactory lower bound estimates for the distance between the satellite and the mass center. An upper bound estimate for this distance is also provided as a contrast to classical existence proofs by continuation from infinity.

A thermodynamic analysis of mechanical equilibrium conditions is performed for the curved interface of a vapor–liquid system in the gravitational field potential with regard to ratios of experimental times of relaxation of thermodynamic parameters (momentum, energy, and mass). In a kinetic analysis of the relaxation stage of reaching the equilibrium state, it is revealed that it is important to consider the physical nature of the boundary of separating phases. The mechanical model of the boundary is one with an intermediate foreign film preventing the attainment of chemical equilibrium between the neighboring phases. The real boundary of coexisting phases has a variable density profile corresponding to the condition of the constant chemical potential throughout the region of transition and in the neighboring coexisting phases. The absence of an intermediate film excludes the priority of the mechanical equilibrium over the chemical equilibrium and results in pressure being the function of local temperature and chemical potential values (excluding the application of the Laplace equation). Considering times of relaxation is found to change the familiar Gibbs expression for the pressure jump between coexisting vapor and fluid as functions of the boundary in the gravitational field potential. A consequence of considering the correct ratio of momentum and mass times of relaxation is discussed: the phase equilibrium conditions of a separating vapor–liquid system in combined gravitational and surface force fields must be analyzed in order to solve problems of the capillary theory.

Near-future surveys promise a dramatic improvement in the number and precision of astrometric, photometric and spectroscopic measurements of stars in the Milky Way's disk. We examine the impact of such surveys on our understanding of the Galaxy by "observing" particle realizations of non-axisymmetric disk distributions orbiting in an axisymmetric halo with appropriate errors and then attempting to recover the underlying potential using a Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) approach. We demonstrate that the azimuthally averaged gravitational force field in the Galactic plane--and hence, to a lesser extent, the Galactic mass distribution--can be tightly constrained over a large range of radii using a variety of types of surveys so long as the error distribution of the measurements of the parallax, proper motion and radial velocity are well-understood and the disk is surveyed globally. One advantage of our method is that the target stars can be selected non-randomly in real or apparent-magnitude space to ensure just such a global sample without biasing the results. Assuming we can always measure the line-of-sight velocity of a star with at least 1 km/s precision, we demonstrate that the force field can be determined to better than ~1% for Galactocentric radii in the range R=4-20 kpc We conclude that near-future surveys, like SIM Lite, Gaia, and VERA, will provide the first precise mapping of the gravitational force field in the region of the Galactic disk.

Granular dynamics simulations of inelastic spheres thermalised by mechanical vibrations are reported. The objective is to determine the conditions whereby inelastic spheres in a gravitational force field can behave quasi-thermodynamically. Granular temperatures and granular pressures are defined by analogy with molecular thermodynamics. Quasi-thermodynamic property profiles are then investigated as a function of the system state variables, surface density, gravitational field, and the vibrational frequency and amplitude. A quasi-thermodynamic phase-behaviour of crystallisation equilibria, and also mixing and segregation phenomena in binary systems, are observed. Conditions for granular steady-states to obey laws of corresponding states with small inhomogeneous thermodynamics systems are obtained. The results for a binary system are consistent with the thermodynamic interpretation of recently discovered experimental phase behaviour of binary powders fluidised by acoustic vibrations. The results may be regarded as a step towards a more formal description of various “self-assembly” phenomena of granular colloids, as ordering transitions of quasi-thermodynamic small systems.

Nonbarred ringed galaxies are relatively normal galaxies showing bright rings of star formation in spite of lacking a strong bar. This morphology is interesting because it is generally accepted that a typical ring forms when material collects near a resonance, set up by the pattern speed of a bar or bar-like perturbation. Our goal in this paper is to examine whether the ring star formation properties are related to the non-axisymmetric gravity potential in general. For this purpose, we obtained H{\alpha} emission line images and calculated the line fluxes and star formation rates (SFRs) for 16 nonbarred SA galaxies and four weakly barred SAB galaxies with rings. For comparison, we combine our observations with a re-analysis of previously published data on five SA, seven SAB, and 15 SB galaxies with rings, three of which are duplicates from our sample. With these data, we examine what role a bar may play in the star formation process in rings. Compared to barred ringed galaxies, we find that the inner ring SFRs and H{\alpha}+[N ii] equivalent widths in nonbarred ringed galaxies show a similar range and trend with absolute blue magnitude, revised Hubble type, and other parameters. On the whole, the star formation properties of inner rings, excluding the distribution of H ii regions, are independent of the ring shapes and the bar strength in our small samples. We confirm that the deprojected axis ratios of inner rings correlate with maximum relative gravitational force Q_g; however, if we consider all rings, a better correlation is found when local bar forcing at the radius of the ring, Q_r, is used. Individual cases are described and other correlations are discussed. By studying the physical properties of these galaxies, we hope to gain a better understanding of their placement in the scheme of the Hubble sequence and how they formed rings without the driving force of a bar.

Numerical computations were carried out for natural convection of air in a cubic enclosure under both magnetizing and gravitational force fields. The air in the cubic enclosure is heated from one vertical wall and cooled from an opposing cold wall. Two electric wires to produce a magnetic field are located outside the vertical side walls, perpendicular to the hot and cold walls. Computation for a nongravity field revealed that the magnetizing force attracts the cold air and repels the hot air. As a result, convection roll cells can be seen from the top plate, although usual natural-convection roll cells can be seen through a vertical side wall. Computations were carried for the combined force field of gravity and magnetism for the ranges of parameters Pr=0.71, Ra=10 4 , 10 5 , 10 6 , and 10 7 , and n =0, 0.1, 1, and 10, where n represents the strength of magnetic field. As n increases, the effect of the magnetizing force prevails. This can be understood from the model equation and the flow modes computed. As the Rayleigh number increases, the magnetizing force is enhanced also.

In an expanding universe, velocity field and gravitational force field are proportional to each other in the linear regime. Neither of these quantities evolve in time and these can be scaled suitably so that the constant of proportionality is unity and velocity and force field are equal. The Zeldovich approximation extends this feature beyond the linear regime, until formation of pancakes. Nonlinear clustering which takes place {\it after} the breakdown of Zeldovich approximation, breaks this relation and the mismatch between these two vectors increases as the evolution proceeds. We suggest that the difference of these two vectors could form the basis for a powerful, new, statistical indicator of nonlinear clustering. We define an indicator called velocity contrast, study its behaviour using N-Body simulations and show that it can be used effectively to delineate the regions where nonlinear clustering has taken place. We discuss several features of this statistical indicator and provide simple analytic models to understand its behaviour. Particles with velocity contrast higher than a threshold have a correlation function which is biased with respect to the original sample. This bias factor is scale dependent and tends to unity at large scales.

The present reading is part of our on-going attempt at the foremost endeavour of physics since man began to comprehend the heavens and the earth. We present a much more improved Unified Field Theory of all the forces of Nature i.e. the gravitational, the electromagnetic, the weak and the strong nuclear forces. The proposed theory is a radical improvement of Professor Hermann Weyl’s supposedly failed attempt at a unified theory of gravitation and electromagnetism. As is the case with Professor Weyl’s theory, unit vectors in the proposed theory vary from one point to the next, albeit, in a manner such that they are—for better or for worse; compelled to yield tensorial affinities. In a separate reading, the Dirac equation is shown to emerge as part of the description of the these variable unit vectors. The nuclear force fields—i.e., electromagnetic, weak and the strong— together with the gravitational force field are seen to be described by a four-vector field Aμ, which forms part of the body of the variable unit vectors and hence the metric of spacetime. The resulting theory very strongly appears to be a logically consistent and coherent unification of classical and quantum physics and at the same time a grand unity of all the forces of Nature. Unlike most unification theories, the present proposal is unique in that it achieves unification on a fourdimensional continuum of spacetime without the need for extra-dimensions.

Variational Problems with Bounded Control Variables

(1951). Physical Families in the Gravitational Field of Force. The American Mathematical Monthly: Vol. 58, No. 4, pp. 226-232.

The suppression of star formation in the inner kiloparsec regions of barred disk galaxies due to the action of bars is known as bar quenching. We investigate here the significance of bar quenching in the global quenching of star formation in the barred galaxies and their transformation to passive galaxies in the local Universe. We do this by measuring the offset of quenched barred galaxies from star-forming main sequence galaxies in the star formation rate-stellar mass plane and comparing it with the length of the bar, which is considered as a proxy of bar quenching. We constructed the star formation rate-stellar mass plane of 2885 local Universe face-on strong barred disk galaxies (z < 0.06) identified by Galaxy Zoo. The barred disk galaxies studied here fall on the star formation main sequence relation with a significant scatter for galaxies above stellar mass 1010.2M⊙. We found that 34.97% galaxies are within the intrinsic scatter (0.3 dex) of the main sequence relation, with a starburst population of 10.78% (above the 0.3 dex) and a quenched population of 54.25% (below the −0.3 dex) of the total barred disk galaxies in our sample. Significant neutral hydrogen (MHI> 109M⊙with logMHI/M⋆∼ −1.0 to −0.5) is detected in the quenched barred galaxies with a similar gas content to that of the star-forming barred galaxies. We found that the offset of the quenched barred galaxies from the main sequence relation is not dependent on the length of the stellar bar. This implies that the bar quenching may not contribute significantly to the global quenching of star formation in barred galaxies. However, this observed result could also be due to other factors such as the dissolution of bars over time after star formation quenching, the effect of other quenching processes acting simultaneously, and/or the effects of environment.