A critical size and period hypothesis to explain natural regulation of salmon abundance and the linkage to climate and climate change

478 LANGUAGE, VOLUME 76, NUMBER 2 (2000) Second language acquisition and the critical period hypothesis. Ed. by David Birdsong. (Second language acquisition research: Theoretical and methodological issues 3.) Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1999. Pp. x, 191. The third in a series on theoretical and methodological issues in second language acquisition (SLA) research, this volume was inspired by the 1996 Association Internationale de Linguistique Appliquée symposium, 'New perspectives on the critical period for SLA'. The editor notes in his introductory chapter (1-18) that several versions of the critical period hypothesis (CPH) are represented in the book, allowing a broad perspective on the issue. In the six chapters that follow, international contributors to the volume are evenly divided in the discussion for and against critical periods in SLA. Diversifying the volume are the range of disciplines that take up the issue and the variety of evidence put forth, including but not limited to morphological, syntactic, and phonological data. The three chapters following the introduction present data from SLA studies that support the CPH. Starting from a neurophysiological approach, Christine M. Weber-Fox and Helen T. Neville (23-36) present the hypothesis that cerebral subsystems for semantics and grammar are differentially affected by critical periods (CPs). The authors' incorporation of both behavioral and electrophysiological research methods provides compelling evidence for this hypothesis . Tames R. Hurford and Simon Kirby (39-62) describe simulations that suggest that evolutionary processes contribute to a CP and discuss the implications for SLA briefly. Lynn Eubank and Kevin R. Gregg (65-93) bring a thorough linguistic theory analysis of the CPH to the volume. Asserting that CPHs in adult SLA demand refinement, the authors demonstrate ways that this refinement can come from linguistic theory. Also discussed in this chapter are fundamental distinctions of critical and/or sensitive periods and the role of physiological evidence for CPs in SLA. Three remaining chapters provide counter explanations that also fit the facts of SLA. James E. Flege (101-27) examines the discontinuity predicted by CPH vs. linear function in second language pronunciation and age of arrival. One view offered is that second language phonological production is limited by accuracy in first language perception. Theo Bongaerts (133-55) reports on three studies that he and his colleagues performed which attempted to address the concern that ultimate attainment studies focus on advanced learners. This chapter suggests that motivation , access, and training in perception and production may contribute to high levels of phonological attainment. The identification of native-like late learners of English and French from Dutch-speaking backgrounds supports this suggestion. In the final chapter (161-78), Ellen Bialystok and Kenji Hakuta challenge the assumption of causality between age and level of attainment. They explore results that fail to support the CPH in both the linguistic and cognitive evidence, concluding that there is reason to accept a null hypothesis contradicting the CPH. The 'younger equals better' hypothesis for SLA remains under advisement. In this regard the virtue of the contributions presented here is that they offer a broad scope for future research. Researchers, graduate students, and teachers will find this volume a useful equilibration of the issues. [Daniel O. Jackson , University of Pennsylvania.] The virtues of language: History in language , linguistics and texts. Ed. by Dieter Stein and Rosanna Sornicola. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1998. Pp. viii, 232. This collection of thirteen essays is dedicated to the memory of Thomas Frank (1925-1990), who held the Chair ofthe History ofEnglish at the University of Naples from 1982 until his death. The first essay, E. F. Konrad Koerner's revised obituary article (originally published in Historiographia Ling üistica 17.421-26 [1990]), summarizes the honorée's many accomplishments over a long and distinguished career (3-10). It contains his bibliography from 1953-1996, which includes a number of studies in the history of linguistics such as a monograph on Bishop Tohn Wilkins's (1714-1792) Essay towards a real character and a philosophical language of 1668 (Guida: Naples, 1979). Rosanna Sornicola's "Thomas Frank in the Neapolitan environment' (11-14) is a historical survey of Frank's career in Naples—from his days as a teaching assistant in English atthe Neapolitan Istituto Universitario...

478 LANGUAGE, VOLUME 76, NUMBER 2 (2000) Second language acquisition and the critical period hypothesis. Ed. by David Birdsong. (Second language acquisition research: Theoretical and methodological issues 3.) Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1999. Pp. x, 191. The third in a series on theoretical and methodological issues in second language acquisition (SLA) research, this volume was inspired by the 1996 Association Internationale de Linguistique Appliquée symposium, 'New perspectives on the critical period for SLA'. The editor notes in his introductory chapter (1-18) that several versions of the critical period hypothesis (CPH) are represented in the book, allowing a broad perspective on the issue. In the six chapters that follow, international contributors to the volume are evenly divided in the discussion for and against critical periods in SLA. Diversifying the volume are the range of disciplines that take up the issue and the variety of evidence put forth, including but not limited to morphological, syntactic, and phonological data. The three chapters following the introduction present data from SLA studies that support the CPH. Starting from a neurophysiological approach, Christine M. Weber-Fox and Helen T. Neville (23-36) present the hypothesis that cerebral subsystems for semantics and grammar are differentially affected by critical periods (CPs). The authors' incorporation of both behavioral and electrophysiological research methods provides compelling evidence for this hypothesis . Tames R. Hurford and Simon Kirby (39-62) describe simulations that suggest that evolutionary processes contribute to a CP and discuss the implications for SLA briefly. Lynn Eubank and Kevin R. Gregg (65-93) bring a thorough linguistic theory analysis of the CPH to the volume. Asserting that CPHs in adult SLA demand refinement, the authors demonstrate ways that this refinement can come from linguistic theory. Also discussed in this chapter are fundamental distinctions of critical and/or sensitive periods and the role of physiological evidence for CPs in SLA. Three remaining chapters provide counter explanations that also fit the facts of SLA. James E. Flege (101-27) examines the discontinuity predicted by CPH vs. linear function in second language pronunciation and age of arrival. One view offered is that second language phonological production is limited by accuracy in first language perception. Theo Bongaerts (133-55) reports on three studies that he and his colleagues performed which attempted to address the concern that ultimate attainment studies focus on advanced learners. This chapter suggests that motivation , access, and training in perception and production may contribute to high levels of phonological attainment. The identification of native-like late learners of English and French from Dutch-speaking backgrounds supports this suggestion. In the final chapter (161-78), Ellen Bialystok and Kenji Hakuta challenge the assumption of causality between age and level of attainment. They explore results that fail to support the CPH in both the linguistic and cognitive evidence, concluding that there is reason to accept a null hypothesis contradicting the CPH. The 'younger equals better' hypothesis for SLA remains under advisement. In this regard the virtue of the contributions presented here is that they offer a broad scope for future research. Researchers, graduate students, and teachers will find this volume a useful equilibration of the issues. [Daniel O. Jackson , University of Pennsylvania.] The virtues of language: History in language , linguistics and texts. Ed. by Dieter Stein and Rosanna Sornicola. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1998. Pp. viii, 232. This collection of thirteen essays is dedicated to the memory of Thomas Frank (1925-1990), who held the Chair ofthe History ofEnglish at the University of Naples from 1982 until his death. The first essay, E. F. Konrad Koerner's revised obituary article (originally published in Historiographia Ling üistica 17.421-26 [1990]), summarizes the honorée's many accomplishments over a long and distinguished career (3-10). It contains his bibliography from 1953-1996, which includes a number of studies in the history of linguistics such as a monograph on Bishop Tohn Wilkins's (1714-1792) Essay towards a real character and a philosophical language of 1668 (Guida: Naples, 1979). Rosanna Sornicola's "Thomas Frank in the Neapolitan environment' (11-14) is a historical survey of Frank's career in Naples—from his days as a teaching assistant in English atthe Neapolitan Istituto Universitario...

Given the general failure experienced by adults when attempting to learn a second or foreign language, many have hypothesized that a critical period exists for the domain of language learning. Supporters of the Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) contend that language learning, which takes place outside of this critical period (roughly defined as ending sometime around puberty), will inevitably be marked by non-nativelike features. In opposition to this position, several researches have postulated that, although rare, nativelike proficiency in a second language is in fact possible for adult learners. Still others, in light of the robust debate and research both supporting and challenging the CPH, have reconceptualized their views regarding a possible critical period for language learning, claiming that in combination with age of exposure, sociological, psychological, and physiological factors must also be considered when determining the factors that facilitate and debilitate language acquisition. In this paper, a review of literature describing the support, challenges, and reconceptualizations of the CPH is provided.

The age factor in second language acquisition (SLA) has long been a controversial topic among researchers and one that has been surrounded by popular beliefs as well. Many of these beliefs have been called into question in recent years and the search for answers has generated a large body of research on the subject. This paper explores the issue of age in SLA, focusing specifically on the debate surrounding the Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH). After a brief discussion of the CPH andfirst language acquisition, a more extensive examination of the different positions on the CPH and SLA is made. Finally, consideration is given to alternative explanations of age effects in SLA. While no irrefutable conclusions can be offered, it is clear that the ramifications for second-language teachers; educational planners and second language theorists are great enough to warrant a careful reappraisal of the CPH.

In second language acquisition, The Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) holds that there is a critical time period for a person to learn a new language with native proficiency. This time usually begins around the age of two and ends just before puberty. According to the hypothesis, learning a new language after this critical period will be more difficult and unsuccessful. The crucial phase is the stage of a person's development when their nervous system is primed and sensitive to environmental stimuli, according to developmental psychology. If a person does not receive the appropriate environmental stimuli during this time, their capacity to learn new skills will deteriorate, compromising a variety of adult social functions. If a child does not learn a language during this vital era, they are unlikely to achieve native fluency in their first language. Because of the adaptability of the brain, a person is poised to learn new abilities throughout the critical period. Synapses, or brain connections, are extremely receptive to information. Some researchers refer to the'sensitive period' or 'weak critical period' as a synonym for the critical period. The sensitive phase is comparable to the critical period in that it is characterized by a high level of neuroplasticity and rapid formation of new synapses in the brain. The key distinction is that the sensitive phase is thought to endure longer than puberty, but there are no hard bounds. Keywords: Critical period hypothesis, Second Language acquisition

Part 1 Evidence of speech milestones: the early stages later stages speech processing milestones evidence from abnormal language development and language disorders. Part 2 The critical period hypothesis - first language-related evidence: the onset of the critical period the end of the critical period first language development after puberty a decline into the vale of years? Part 3 The critical period hypothesis - second language evidence: the younger=better position the older=better position the younger=better at acquiring accent BICS position the younger=better in the long run position age and the second language learning process. Part 4 Theoretical perspectives: the ageing of the senses age and competition between languages neurolinguistics and the critical period cognitive developmental views affect and motivation age and input the de-coupling hypothesis the age factor and nativism. Part 5 The educational dimension: second languages in the early school years second languages for the young-old.

Although issues regarding the critical period hypothesis (CPH) have become recurrent in the fields of foreign language (L2) teaching and learning; the claim that there is a period extending from ages 2-12 during which children can acquire language more easily and rapidly has recently been revived as a result of social demands in various countries for improved outcomes in the area of L2 teaching in public schools. The focus of this paper is on the implicit/explicit role played by the CPH in recent educational reforms that have resulted in an international trend toward an early start in L2 teaching; particularly the teaching of English as a foreign/international language. The paper argues that the CPH has become a powerful instrument; one that allows educational policymakers to ignore the findings of empirical research and claim to offer “quality L2 teaching” by simply reducing the required starting age.

The impact of financial hardship in childhood on depression and anxiety in adult life: Testing the accumulation, critical period and social mobility hypotheses.

The impact of childhood socioeconomic status on depression and anxiety in adult life: Testing the accumulation, critical period and social mobility hypotheses

Research on age-related effects in L2 development often invokes the idea of a critical period - the postulation of which is customarily referred to as the Critical Period Hypothesis. This paper argues that to speak in terms of the Critical Period Hypothesis is misleading, since there is a vast amount of variation in the way in which the critical period for language acquisition is understood -affecting all the parameters deemed to be theoretically significant and indeed also relating to the ways in which the purported critical period is interpreted in terms of its implications for L2 instruction. The paper concludes that the very fact that there are such diverse and competing versions of the Critical Period Hypothesis of itself undermines its plausibility.

The critical size hypothesis proposes the risks of winter mortality are greatest for small individuals in fish populations. This results from size-dependent predation and starvation of wintering fishes. We extend this idea to walleye pollock ( Theragra chalcogramma) and argue size-dependence leads to different wintering strategies among subadult life stages. We sampled fish quarterly, measured their size, growth and energy allocation. By comparing the contributions of endogenous energy sources (storage and structure) to metabolic demand in young-of-the-year (YOY) and juvenile pollock over winter we determined how length influenced their winter foraging requirement. From this we inferred the relative risks of starvation and predation for different sized fish. Young-of-the-year (≤ 170 mm) experienced high starvation risk and relied on foraging to meet routine metabolic cost. Consequently, they consumed relatively little storage or structural energy over winter. In contrast, juveniles (> 170 mm and ≤ 270 mm) responded to the risk of predation by consuming significant amounts of protein and structural lipids while minimizing foraging. Consistent with these observations we found YOY maximized growth in fall while juveniles maximized energy storage. In spring, YOY resumed growth earlier than juveniles. These data indicate the critical size and period hypothesis can be extended to walleye pollock.

The critical period hypothesis proposes that deterioration occurs aggressively during the early years of psychosis, with relative stability subsequently. Thus, interventions that shorten the duration of untreated psychosis (DUP) and arrest early deterioration may have long-term benefits. To test the critical period hypothesis by determining whether outcome in non-affective psychosis stabilises beyond the critical period and whether DUP correlates with 8-year outcome; to determine whether duration of untreated illness (DUI) has any independent effect on outcome. We recruited 118 people consecutively referred with first-episode psychosis to a prospective, naturalistic cohort study. Negative and disorganised symptoms improved between 4 and 8 years. Duration of untreated psychosis predicted remission, positive symptoms and social functioning at 8 years. Continuing functional recovery between 4 and 8 years was predicted by DUI. These results provide qualified support for the critical period hypothesis. The critical period could be extended to include the prodrome as well as early psychosis.

Teaching foreign languages to young learners is gaining popularity all over the world and as a result the age for learning a second/foreign language is being reduced in many countries. However, the outcomes of early language teaching haven’t been thoroughly investigated and the question related to why we are teaching English at younger ages is not answered adequately. The SLA research has investigated the issue of age as an outcome of L1 acquisition research. The studies related to age and the ‘Critical Period Hypothesis’ (CPH) were mostly conducted in the second language environments and neglected the foreign language contexts. Moreover, the results of such studies, where adults versus children; and younger children versus older children are compared, have conflicting findings. Thus, the study aims to reconsider the ‘Critical Period Hypothesis’ by discussing significant considerations in the literature, such as neurolinguistic, cognitive and affective arguments and studies comparing children with adults. It also aims to shed some light on current foreign language teaching practices. In addition, the implications of the CPH to teaching English to young learners will be discussed.

In second language acquisition, The Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) holds that there is a critical time period for a person to learn a new language with native proficiency. This time usually begins around the age of two and ends just before puberty. According to the hypothesis, learning a new language after this critical period will be more difficult and unsuccessful. The crucial phase is the stage of a person's development when their nervous system is primed and sensitive to environmental stimuli, according to developmental psychology. If a person does not receive the appropriate environmental stimuli during this time, their capacity to learn new skills will deteriorate, compromising a variety of adult social functions. If a child does not learn a language during this vital era, they are unlikely to achieve native fluency in their first language. Because of the adaptability of the brain, a person is poised to learn new abilities throughout the critical period. Synapses, or brain connections, are extremely receptive to information. Some researchers refer to the'sensitive period' or weak critical period' as a synonym for the critical period. The sensitive phase is comparable to thecritical period in that it is characterized by a high level of neuroplasticity and rapid formation of new synapses in the brain. The key distinction is that the sensitive phase is thought to endure longer than puberty, but there are no hard bounds.

Abstract.—Size-selective mortality combined with longer winters at high-latitudes is expected to exert strong directional selection on size, growth, and energy use and storage capacity in northern fish populations. Here, we tested the hypotheses that juvenile Pacific salmon <em>Oncorhynchus </em>spp. grow faster, reach larger size, and accumulate higher energy reserves in the marine environment at northern latitudes using juvenile Chinook salmon <em>O. tshawystcha </em>and coho salmon <em>O. kisutch </em>collected on the continental shelf from the California coast to the Bering Sea. Size reached at the end of the growing season, the quantity of energy stored prior to the onset of winter, and summer growth of juvenile Chinook and coho salmon during their first year at sea varied significantly among regions of the continental shelf. Latitudinal trends were detected for the fall size of subyearling and yearling Chinook salmon and storage energy in yearling Chinook salmon. However, they were opposite to expectations, with values decreasing from southern to northern areas. Latitudinal trends were also apparent for summer growth in juvenile yearling Chinook salmon. However, in contrast to fall size and storage energy, higher growth rates were generally observed in northern rather than in southern regions. Similarly, summer growth generally decreased from northern to southern regions in juvenile coho salmon. Storage energy did not exhibit a consistent trend with latitude in juvenile subyearling Chinook salmon and coho salmon. The different response of juvenile Chinook salmon and coho salmon to a latitudinal cline in temperature and the length of the growing season suggest that both species utilize the marine environment differently. We suggest that regional variations in juvenile salmon growth and energy accumulation may result from differences in prey quality (i.e., lipids), diet, and interspecific competition for prey resources.