A comparative study of Educational Subject Philosophy in China and non-affirmative theory of education

It is aimed to deliberate the nature of relation between theory and practice in this article, and focused on importance the educational theory to educational practice, and the educational practice to educational theory. It is assumed that theory as a production style of the philosophy itself, and argued that has been found main theory essentialist, empirist and humanistic in the history of philosophy. The theoretic styles reflects on education as rationalist, idealist, pragmatist, existiantialist and hermeneutical educational theory. It is also aimed to form a stage system between philosophy and practice. Theory is somewhere which mediates philosophy and practice, it is the consciousness of practice. Also, educational theory mediates philosophy of education and educational practice. It guides educational practice. As it moves from the philosophy of education and educational practice, philosopy becomes more and more concrete. There is a mutual correlation between theory and practice. Theory improves practice and practice improves theory, as well. Regarding the above mentioned as its subject matter, this article takes attention to the significance of the theory of education in terms of educational practice, and the significance of educational practice in terms of edicational theory. And it emhasizes the fact that an effective educational action is based on the ideal synhesis of theory and practice. It also investigates whether there is a difference between educational theory and philosophy of education or not

The paper deals with the interaction of the philosophy of education and education as institutional systems. Hypothetically there are “gravitational”, “weak”, “electromagnetic” and “strong” interactions between the philosophy of education and educational practice. An overview of the interactions between education and the philosophy of education as the production/development of breakthrough methods of designing and creating new educational institutions and systems, new senses, knowledge and technologies is proposed to conduct similarly to 9 types of most important interactions between different populations. It is established that the protocooperation as a form of cohabitation, in which the philosophy of education and education derive some benefits from association, but their coexistence is not obligatory for their survival is dominated in interaction between the philosophy of education and education. The prospect of interaction between the philosophy of education and educational practice based on the model of mutaulism, that is, a connection favorable to the growth and survival of the philosophy of education and education, and none of these institutional systems can exist without the other, is outlined. The relation between philosophy of education and educational practice assumes various interpretations, in particular, it is necessary to distinguish “gravitational”, “weak”, “electromagnetic” and “strong” connections. If consider relation between education and philosophy of education (a production/development of breakthrough design methods and creation of new educational institutes and systems, new senses, knowledge and technologies) by analogy with an ecological theory that set 9 types of the most essential relation between different populations, then such relation between philosophy of education and education is possible to describe as protocooperation, which means that philosophy of education and education get advantages from association, but their coexistence as an institutional system is not obligatory for their institutional functioning. It harms both the philosophy of education and the development of education in general. Hence, the perspective of cooperation between philosophy of education and educational practice is seen as an example of mutualism, that is a beneficial connection to the increase and survival of the philosophy of education and education, while none of these institutional systems can exist without one another.

The proposed paper will address itself to the changing relationship between educational theory and practice in response to the challenge of postmodernism. The formulation of universal theoretical framework to distinct universalia from accidentia both in physical and social world can be traced to the legacy of the Enlightenment. For the philosophers of Enlightenment, the whole world is nothing but a mechanical mathematical structure. Thus the events of the world can be explained, predicted and even controlled by a universal law. Cartesian mathesis universalis and Leibnitzian characteristica universalica represent the scientific ideal of the Enlightenment. The rise of modern social sciences began with the need to understand modernization following the Enlightenment ideals for transforming society. Prediction and control of social development were called for the transformation of society. The rigorous scientific theory was thus required within the context of social modernization. Within the larger context of social modernization resulted from the Enlightenment, there arose a need to establish rational educational science for predicting the changes of humanity, fully developing human perfectibility and thus creating a world better to live. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) and Ernst Chritian Trapp (1745-1818) were two prominent representatives of the trend towards exact and precise educational science that, analogously to physical sciences, could offer universally valid educational knowledge. The Enlightenment scientific ideal was brought by the educational positivists in 1960's to an extreme, where the quantitative data were used to test rigorously the hypothesis and to formulate nomological theory for the prediction of educational development. Once the rigorous theory was established, it would be served as a scientific basis for identifying the one best policy and practice for all contexts. Educational practice in such a circumstance would be degenerated into technique neglecting the reflection and choice of the subject resonanting the situational changes. constitution of those things that flow upon(the body) and impinge upon it, as ancient Greek philosopher Democritus (Diels & Kranz, 1956, 68 Dem. B9) would say. The universality of knowledge claim and ahistorical epistemological foundation are refuted by postmodernists. An intensive awareness of the significance of language, discourse and socio-cultural locatedness has been arising in the making of any knowledge-claim. As J. -F. Lyotard (1984) properly observes, ”for the last forty years the «leading» sciences and technologies have had to do with language and scientific knowledge has been nothing but a kind of discourse in addition to, and in competition and conflict with another kind of knowledge-narrative knowledge”. Thus scientific knowledge has lost its monopolistic legitimation authority. If the reality is questioned and knowledge ligitimation is floating as a myriad of meaning changes, how can an avowed universally, or at least generally, valid educational theory be set up to regulate educational practice? Education is, as R. Usher and R. Edwards (1994: 24) correctly observe, ”very much the dutiful child of the Enlightenment and, as such, tends to uncritically accept a set of assumptions deriving from Enlightenment thought.” For the philosophers of Enlightenment, the whole world is nothing but a mechanical mathematical structure. Thus the events of the world can be explained, predicted and even controlled by a universal law. Cartesian mathesis universalis and Leibnitzian characteristica universalica represent the scientific ideal of the Enlightenment. The rise of modern social sciences began, as Hollinger (1994: 3) observes, with the need to understand the social and cultural transformation, specifically of modernization, following the Enlightenment ideal of perfecting social development. Within the larger context of social modernization resulted from the Enlightenment, there arose a need to establish rational educational science for predicting the changes of humanity, fully developing human perfectibility and thus creating a world better to live. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) and Ernst Christian Trapp (1745-1818) were two prominent representatives of the trend towards exact and precise educational science that, analogously to physical sciences, could offer universally valid educational knowledge. The Enlightenment scientific ideal was brought by educational posititivists in the 1960s to an extreme, where the quantitative data were used to test rigorously the hypothesis and to formulate nomological theory for the prediction of educational development. Once the rigorous theory was established, it would be served as a scientific basis for identifying the one best policy and practice for all contexts. Educational practice in such a circumstance would be degenerated into technique neglecting the reflection and choice of the subject resonanting the situational changes. The process of modernization in the western world since the Enlightenment reached its zenith in the last few decades. The abstract nomologocal theories based on western rational logic and experience have been universalized to such an extreme that postmodern decentralism, aestheticism, pluralism have been disseminated in response to modern logocentrism, eurocentrism and totalianism in scientific discourse. Under the impacts of postmodern anti-foundationalism, epistemological pluralism and logic of merchantile and performativity, the relationship between educational theory and practice should be reevaluated to determine what kinds of knowledge are appropriate to actualize educational objectives with a view to emancipating humanity from inner and exterior domination and thus leading to the realization of authentic self. This paper aderesses itself to this debatable issue facing the dialectical confrontation and synthesis of modernity and postmodernity. Educational Theory and Practice of the Enlightment Legacy Education was deemed as worthy vehicle by the Enlightenment philosophers to substantiate and realize the ideals of critical reason, humanistic individual freedom and benevolent progress of that time. Towards actualizing these ideals, the establishment of rational educational science was thought essential to investigate suitable educational methods (H. Blankertz, 1982: 28-29). 1. Kant (1804: 444), as an heir of the Enlightenment, proposed first: The mechanism of educational art must be transformed into a kind of The process of modernization in the western world since the Enlightenment reached its zenith in the last few decades. The abstract nomological theories based on western rationalistic logic and experience have been universalized to such an extreme that postmodern decentralism, aestheticism, pluralism have been disseminated in response to modern logocentrism, eurocentrism and totalitarianism in scientific discourse. Under the impacts of postmodern incredulity to the totalizing metanarrtives pluralistic stance, and logic of merchantile and performativity, the relationship between educational theory and practice should be reevaluated to determine what kinds of knowledge are appropriate to actualize educational objectives with a view to emancipating humanity from inner and exterior domination and thus leading to the realization of authentic self.

From the analysis of Protić's voluminous work, we can conclude that the author, as a representative of herbartian's orientation in Serbian pedagogy, emphasizes the importance of defining the problem of education in relation to schooling. In his General Pedagogy, the term education was used in 28 different interpretations. It occurs in five different forms, namely: 'education will,' (4 times), also synonymous with 'moral will' (2); 'direct the education of moral character' (5); 'the education of opinions' (1); 'education spirit' (1); 'proper education issues' (1). It is worth noting that these forms unfold separately in his work, but as such they make an incomplete concept. Therefore, they need to be considered synthetically, as a whole, in order for the versatility of his concept of education to be fully appreciated. The paper started with the observation of educational theory (which occurs 2 times) and educational practices (2 times) as well as general questions that carry a multitude of other educational situations and problems. 'The task of education' (mentioned 6 times) is synonymous with 'educational mission' (6 times) and it is interchangeable with 'forms of education' that occurs once only. In terms of factors influencing a personality development, Protić is be said to be of the optimistic orientation and pays great attention to the justification of the educational process, assuring the reader of the 'need for education' (three times). He also underlines the 'power of education' (three times), but at the same time, excluding the infinity process, the setting of the 'boundaries of education' (to be discussed in five attempts). Finally, the inseparability of many issues in Protić's 'education process' is equal to the unity of 'means of education', 'education goals', 'objectives of education', and 'individuality education' in the 'educational work'. An educator exhaustively elaborates the 'moral' and the 'physical' in teaching, while other forms of education are mentioned exclusively using synonyms thus lessening their significance. Protić attempted to denominate certain theoretical, practical and other educational processes: 'pedagogical theory' (twice), 'educational practice' (twice), 'corrective instruction' (twice) with his methods a) 'form of educational practice', and b) the 'principle of educational instruction' (one) or 'educational work' (five times). Protić justifies the guidelines for the process of education with numerous concepts: 'task of education' (six times) synonymous with 'educational mission' (five times), 'forms of education' (once), 'successful education' (once), 'need for education' (three times), 'the power of education' (three times), 'educational success' (once), 'substance of education' (once), 'standards for education' (once), 'the influence of education' (once), 'individuality of education' (once) 'educational goals' (five times), 'the concept of education' (three times), and 'education time' (once). Although there are discrepancies in tackling 'adult education' among his contemporaries, Protić actively introduces the category of a trainee, which is widely understood and associated to the term 'Youth'. According to Protić, 'National Youth Education' is divided into two basic types: 'education in the narrow sense' (four times) and 'educational practice' (twice). He also differentiates 'essentials in education' (once), 'education process' (twice), 'means of education' (twice) and 'educational work' (five times ). Protić illusory tends to define educational success and in order to do so special attention should be paid to 'the burden of education', as well as to point out the 'importance of education' and set 'standards for education'. In addition, he carefully chooses his synonyms such as 'the development and care of the body' for physical education, or 'moral commitment' and 'moral character' for moral education.

As an innovative form of rural education, Liang Shuming’s theory and practice of rural education has far-reaching significance for the modernization of Chinese rural education and the improvement of the comprehensive quality of rural students. However, current education is facing the problem of utilitarianization of education. This paper first introduces Liang Shuming’s life background and ideological system and the framework of the core ideas of the rural education theory proposed by Liang Shuming, and then discusses Liang Shuming’s rural education theory and practice, i.e., vitalized education. At present, the rate of compulsory education in rural areas is only 79.1% and the rate of high school education is only 32.5%, so the level and quality of education need to be improved. The modern significance of Liang Shuming’s rural education theory and practice in rural education not only lies in the enrichment of educational contents and methods, but also in the promotion of rural economic, social and cultural development and the improvement of rural education quality and level. To this end, we should learn from Liang Shuming’s theory of rural education to enhance the level of rural education and to realize the "life-giving" educational practice of promoting students’ human growth, moral development and spiritual ascension. This paper argues that in the current rural education, the school level should face the growth of students’ lives, consciously care for their lives, and guide them to deepen their own lives; in the practice of education and teaching, it should respect students’ individual lives, build a platform for students’ independent innovation, and nurture students’ spiritual lives with classical Chinese traditional culture, so as to promote the progress of rural education.

Philosophy is science with the facts and data naturally relating to all aspects of human life coming into existence. As it throws light onto the problem of life and human destiny, it implies and postulates education. From these two aspects come their respective angles of vision, with similar issues and problems. Such are the meaning and purpose of human life, the relationship of the individual to the community and to his environment and the problem of values. Any coherent system of ideas, which provides guidance in facing these problems or offers a thoughtful criticism of existing institutions, culture, social practices and ways of thought, must necessarily be the basis of our educational theory and practice. In this regard, having strong conviction, the authors present Allama Muhammad Iqbal has contributed invaluable provision and solution on the problem of education. This paper intends to explore his idea on the Educational Philosophy which had been elaborated by Saiyidain. There is no doubt that Iqbal is the most versatile genius that modern Muslim world has produced. It will be difficult to find many who are his equals as educators, poets in any languages of the East or the West. He may not have built any great system of philosophy like Kant or Hegel, but his philosophical thinking was extensive as well as intensive. For, education is, after all, engaged in the process of critically evaluating and effectively transmitting the cultural heritage, knowledge and ideas of a social group to its young members, thereby securing the continuity of collective life and culture as well as ensuring their intelligent, the creative reconstruction.

Aim. The aim of the article is to determine the status and purpose of philosophy of education, and to identify the peculiarities of its relationship with educational practice and pedagogical science. Concept. Philosophy of education and pedagogy explore different aspects of the same subject field – education. Realising different research functions, they do not act as competitors, but, on the contrary, have the potential for mutual complementarity and reciprocal strengthening of their cognitive capabilities. Results. Philosophy of education as a branch of applied philosophy is not an instrumental tool and cannot directly influence educational practice. It is designed to provide comprehension and understanding of the most important problems of the theory and practice of education. The role of mediator is played by another science of education – pedagogy. Conclusion. The most productive form of relationship between philosophy of education and pedagogical science is their interaction, which contributes to the mutual enrichment, building up and the fullest realisation of their special research capabilities. Pedagogy has a choice of philosophical and educational concepts to develop educational theories which are verified by experiment and directly implemented in practice. Philosophy of education realises its theoretical functions at all stages of educational activity. Cognitive value. The article presents a new perspective on the problem of the relationship between educational philosophy and educational practice. It is argued that the most efficient channel of transferring philosophical and educational ideas into practice is pedagogical science. Keywords: philosophy of education, educational practice, pedagogy, comprehension, understanding, interaction, functions of philosophy of education

Entrepreneurship educators can maximise the effectiveness of their delivery by having a firm grasp of the different educational philosophies and theories that underpin entrepreneurship education pedagogy and practice. A particular educational philosophical orientation underlies, directs, and drives educator practices and should align with what the teaching seeks to impart and achieve, and the roles the learners and educator play in the learning process. Whilst educators might not always be explicitly aware of their philosophical orientation, it will direct and drive their pedagogic practice and have implications for what they deliver, and how they deliver it. The benefits of bringing together different learning theories, philosophies, and approaches for entrepreneurship education has previously been posited in the literature. However, it has been highlighted that connections between educational theory and practice are limited, and that the field of entrepreneurship education could be advanced through providing links between education literature, theory, and learning. This paper advances the literature by linking educational philosophy and theory to entrepreneurship education and pedagogy in higher education. It discusses and highlights how behaviourism, cognitivism, constructivism, and humanism can be used to underpin and support learning in entrepreneurship education. This meets calls for the conceptualisation of how educational philosophies and theories can be integrated into entrepreneurship education to support learners.

In our pursuits to find and attach meaning to the world around us, philosophers of education often refer to or build on a particular position of a philosopher or philosopher of education. As such, we recognise that how we understand a particular encounter or concept is always open to another interpretation and another way of constructing meaning. In opening a platform for the building on past voices, and offering new and re-considered voices, this section consists of 36 original chapters in which the author(s) describe the relevance of the position of the philosopher (of education) to current important questions in the theory or practice of education. To this end, each chapter describes (aspects of) the theory of the philosopher or philosopher of education, and relates it to a particular question, problem or theory, so that what is constructed and contributed addresses a particular debate. The vast volume of theorists, theories, dilemmas and controversies addressed in the 36 chapters offers some insight into the scope and potential contribution of philosophy in relation to education, and its highly complex contexts and contestations.

Editorial Estelle R. Jorgensen This special issue celebrates the contributions of Bennett Reimer (1932–2013) to the philosophy of music education throughout the world. Probably no other philosopher is so identified with music education thought in the latter part of the twentieth century, as a protagonist for the view of music education as a form of aesthetic education and a precursor to an alternative, David Elliott’s praxial theory of music education. Here, our writers examine the historical and editorial context in which he wrote, his impact on music education practice, the nature of ideas that may constitute his legacy for music education, and his effect on music education internationally. Reimer is best remembered for his notion of music education as a form of aesthetic education articulated in his A Philosophy of Music Education (1970) with successive editions in 1989 and 2003. In formulating his philosophy, he dipped into the current of aesthetic ideas about music education that were circulating at the time. One thinks, for example, of Charles Leonard and Robert House’s case for the need for a robust aesthetic philosophy in music education, articulated in their text, Foundations and Principles of Music Education (1959) and Abraham Schwadron’s argument for the place of aesthetics in a philosophy of music education in his Aesthetics: Dimensions for Music Education (1967) published by the Music Educators National Conference. The role of aesthetics and feeling in music education was subsequently addressed by other writers in the 1970s. For example, Thomas Regelski credited Susanne Langer’s notion of feeling in his Principles and Problems of Music Education (1975) and drawing on Schwadron’s work, discussed aesthetics and feeling in his subsequent essay published in the Music Educators Journal, “Aim for the Inner Life: Teaching Early Teens” (1979). [End Page 113] Reimer’s achievement was to catch the imagination of the time and formulate an influential and evolving philosophy that impacted music education research and practice well beyond the United States. By the time I discovered the first edition of Reimer’s Philosophy, I was in the midst of a critique of music education that came to comprise my dissertation and eventually developed into my book, In Search of Music Education, published much later in 1997. Although I agreed with Reimer’s premise that music education constituted a means and form of aesthetic education, I sought a broader, different, and dialectical aesthetic view. For me, music education logically concerned not only aesthetic considerations but important ontological, axiological, and epistemological matters. Although music education might properly be construed as a form of aesthetic education, it could not be only that. My writing reflected a growing sense in the profession of the importance of socially, culturally, and practically grounded views of music and education that complicated and challenged Reimer’s philosophy. The dramatic cultural and societal changes of the times seemed to call for different approaches to the philosophy of music education than the theory Reimer had constructed. There was also a growing desire for a forum in which different philosophical ideas could be articulated and discussed. Reimer began to amend his views but changes in the second edition of his Philosophy were insufficient to satisfy his critics and matters came to a head at the end of the 1980s. In 1989, Elliott published a book review critical of the second edition of Reimer’s A Philosophy of Music Education in the Philosophy of Music Education Newsletter. In 1990, in a paper entitled, “What Should One Expect from a Philosophy of Music Education?” presented at the Philosopher/Teacher in Music: The Indiana Symposium on Research and Teaching in the Philosophy of Music Education, held July 8–12, in Bloomington, Indiana, Philip Alperson introduced the notion of a praxial approach to aesthetics as one of several philosophical moves that could benefit music education. Alperson’s aesthetic emphasis on the social and cultural constructs of music and the role of practices in the phenomenal world took advantage of new intellectual developments. Rather than suggest the praxial option as the only justifiable philosophical position or regard it as an anti-aesthetic posture, Alperson presented three aesthetic options, of which the praxial view was one, each having advantages and...

Editor's Introduction

교육이론의 학습은 바람직한 교육의 실천을 위해 교사에게 요구되는 기본 조건이다. 그러나 실천 없는 이론은 현실과 지나치게 동떨어져 있고, 이론 없는 실천은 방향성의 상실이라는 문제를 안고 있다. 그리하여 이론과 실천 양자 사이에는 이론을 강조하면 실천이, 실천을 강조하면 이론이 소홀하게 취급되는 일종의 긴장이 발생한다. 헤르바르트는 이렇게 양자를 서로 분리된 것으로 간주하는 사고방식이 ‘있는 그대로의 인간’에 의하여 발휘되고 있는 슬기를 간과한다는 점을 지적한다. 교사가 교육의 실천사태에서 발휘하는 슬기에는 양자가 서로 구분되지 않는 상태로 통합되어 있으며, 따라서 그것은 마치 교사가 하고자 하는 행위가 교육이론에 어긋나지 않는 그런 사태, 교육활동의 ‘표준’에 대한 미묘한 감각을 발휘하는 사태를 특징짓는다. 슬기가 ‘있는 그대로의 인간’에게서 나타난다는 그의 견해에 비추어 보면, 교육이론이 구체적인 교육의 실천에 도움이 되는 한하여 의미를 가진다는 생각은 받아들여지기 어렵다. 교육이론은 교육의 실천을 이론적으로 설명한 것으로서, 거기에는 교육활동이 따라야 할 사고방식과 행동방식, 그리고 거기에 수반된 태도와 자세 등이 들어있다. 그리하여 그것의 학습은 가르치는 자로서의 교사로 하여금 바로 그 가르침이 겨냥하는 것을 불완전하게나마 구현하도록 이끈다. 요컨대, 실천의 설명으로서의 교육이론은 또 하나의 실천으로서의 의미를 가지며, 이 점에서 교육이론을 학습하는 과정은 교육의 실천이 겨냥하는 바로 그것, 즉 인격을 형성하는 과정과 다르지 않다.The learning of educational theory is an essential condition required of teachers for the practice of desirable education. However, a theory that overlooks practice is far removed from reality, and on the contrary, a practice that overlooks theory has a problem of loss of direction. Thus, a kind of tension arises between theory and practice. Herbart points out that this way of thinking that regards the two as separate from each other overlooks the tact(Takt) exercised by 'man as he is'. Pedagogical tact integrates theory and practice, and thus it represents the situation in which an action the teacher wants to do does not contradict the educational theory. In light of his point of view, it is difficult to accept the idea that educational theories have meaning only as long as they are helpful to specific educational practices. Educational theory is a theoretical explanation of the practice of education, which contains the way of thinking and behavior that educational activities should follow, and the attitudes involved in it. Its learning leads the teacher to embody what the practice of education aims at. In short, educational theory as an explanation of practice has meaning as another practice. In this respect, the process of learning educational theory is not different from the process of human becoming, which is exactly what educational practice aims at.

This chapter compares the personal backgrounds, educational practices, and political standpoints of two leading Asian philosophers from the twentieth century—Rabindranath Tagore from India and Hu Shih from China—on how education can be used to cultivate individual, social, and global development. The chapter begins with biographical details that led to the formation of their philosophies and activities and then compares diverse interpretations of their political standpoints in order to illustrate their educational intentions and practice. Further, the chapter considers three underexplored layers for the interpretation of Tagore and Hu Shih’s respective educational visions in a broader domain. Specifically, balanced perspectives for a harmonious relationship between the individual and society as well as the fragmented culture and integrated world were endorsed by both educational theorists. We conclude that the two philosophers’ intentions and contributions toward using education as individual cultivation and social development remain invaluable for today’s new generation of educators.

Issues Around Aligning Theory, Research and Practice in Social Work Education provides a reflection on social work education with a slant towards an Afrocentric approach, aiming to facilitate strong reflective thinking and to address local realities about social work education on the African continent as well as in broader global contexts. This volume focuses on issues around aligning theory, research and practice in social work education. A significant contribution is made here to the scholarly understanding of opportunities to sustain the academic discourse on social work education. Social work as a profession and a social science discipline is dynamic, and it ought to meet the challenges of the realities of the societies in which it serves, given the history of the changing society of South Africa from apartheid to democracy. Over the years, social work education and training has undergone tremendous curricular changes with the enactment of the White Paper for Social Welfare and the national review, respectively, by the South African Council for Social Services Professions (SACSSP) and the Council on Higher Education (CHE) for the re-accreditation of all Bachelor of Social Work (BSW) programmes in South Africa fulfilling the prescripts of the Higher Education Act (No. 101 of 1997, as amended) and Social Service Professions Act (No. 110 of 1978). It is worth mentioning that the curricular changes will also continue with the current reviewing of Social Service Professions Act (No. 110 of 1978), as amended, which is underway in South Africa. This book is really ground-breaking! The Afrocentric perspective on social work practice contributes to the current discourse on decolonisation of social work teaching and practice. From a methodological perspective, the book is premised on multi-, inter- and trans-disciplining in social sciences. It covers aspects of social work education and practice through research (narrative, qualitative, African methodology, secondary data analysis, etc.), engendering values and ethics, report writing, supervision in fieldwork as well as exchange programmes and international service-learning, addressing a number of concepts such as cultural competency, cultural awareness and sensitivity are addressed.

Filosofía y praxis educativa según Adolfo Sánchez Vázquez