Abstract
A combined approach, using molecular and microscopic techniques, was used to identify the microbiota associated with the Archimedes Palimpsest, an unusual parchment manuscript. SEM analyses revealed the microbial damage to the collagen fibers and the presence of characteristic cell chains typical of filamentous bacteria and fungal spores. Molecular analysis confirmed a homogeneous bacterial community colonizing the manuscript. The phyla Proteobacteria and Actinobacteria were associated with this ancient parchment; the sequences were most related to uncultured clones detected in the human skin microbiome and in ephitelium, and to cultivated species of the genera Acinetobacter and Nocardiopsis. Nevertheless, a great variation was observed among the different sampled areas indicating fungal diversity. Blumeria spp. dominated in the healthy areas of the parchment while degraded areas showed disparate fungal communities, with dominant members of the genera Mucor and Cladosporium. In addition, the quantification of the β-actin gene by real-time PCR analyses (qPCR) revealed a higher fungal abundance on degraded areas than on the healthy ones.
Highlights
The transmission of ancient texts through the ages appears to be an almost miraculous event from both the microbiological and cultural point of view
The denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) profiles obtained from the swab samples as well as from the corresponding sequenced clones are shown in Fig. 3a and in Fig. 3b–d
Bacterial cells documented by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) form chains that are morphologically consistent with the genus Nocardiopsis, which was identified by molecular methods
Summary
The transmission of ancient texts through the ages appears to be an almost miraculous event from both the microbiological and cultural point of view. Like archeological sites and their contents, ancient books are unique records of our history, in the texts and illuminations that they contain and in their material being; a sort of archive of past events that once restored, are gone forever. This is not to say that ancient codices should not be repaired and restored, but that a modern approach should take into account possible future scientific developments in “microbialarcheology” and the study of past events that can tell something more about these objects
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