A Childhood Memory of René Girard

Objective Learning and memory ability is one of the symbols of higher animals. Compared with other functional markers, learning and memory ability is the most unique. Early childhood is a critical period of learning and memory in a person's life. As a child's initial stage of brain development, environmental factors in early childhood play a key role in the development of the brain. If this critical period is missed, the flexibility required for learning and memory ability will be lost. By consulting the literature, there are few studies on sports related to learning and memory in China, and the results of research on whether physical exercise can improve memory ability at home and abroad are inconsistent. This study is devoted to the analysis of the current research on the ability of sports to learn and remember, and lays the foundation for the study of the impact of physical activity on the learning and memory of young children.
 Methods This study used literature data method, logic analysis method, and inductive method to conduct statistics and analysis on the learning and memory ability of children in sports. The literature shows that children's participation in physical activity is mainly sports games, basic gymnastics and sports dance. This study studies the effects of different physical activities on children's learning and memory ability from three aspects.
 Results 1. The influence of sports games on children's memory ability is mainly reflected by the memory of the game process. Studies have shown that children's observation ability and memory ability are more affected by sports games, and children have significant improvement in learning and memory ability. Through training, children's ability to use memory strategies can be effectively improved. 2. The basic gymnastics movements are simple, but there are many types of movements. In the process of learning children, it is necessary to connect scattered gymnastics movements to activate the learning and memory cells of the brain. In the learning process of basic gymnastics, accompanied by the rhythm of music, the movements are varied, and the children need attention. In addition, the children are more sensitive to the movements, and are good at imitating movements. The rhythm of the temperament is strong, the interest of the children is increased, and the movements are remembered easily, memory function is activated. 3. The children's brain remembers the characteristics of the dance movements, and the body begins to display and achieve a state of physical and mental pleasure. When performing sports dance programs, the four-limb movement drives the brain movement, which stimulates the brain, enhances learning motivation, improves learning and memory ability, and promotes the intelligence development of children.
 Conclusions During exercise, the brain can excite the motor central nervous system to the muscles, and the working condition of the muscles can also be transmitted to the brain through the motor nerves. The brain nerve center in charge of language, memory, thinking, etc. Which is excited in the nerve center of the brain in charge of exercise. When diffused, it will be protectively inhibited, so that these nerves will be relaxed. The interaction between nerves and muscles will enable the body to form a protective mechanism and form a memory effect, so that children can reduce the intensity of physical activity and reduce injuries. The results show that physical activity enhances learning and memory. The rich form of children's sports has increased the interest of young children in participating in physical activities. Not only does it improve the flexibility and sensitivity of young children through participation in sports activities, but also enhances children's

The serial mediation effect of parents' metamemory repertoire and metacognitive talk on children's associative memory.

We report a study of parents' attachment orientations and children's autobiographical memory for an experience that according to Bowlby's (1982) attachment theory should be particularly threatening-children's forced separation from their parents. It was hypothesized that individual differences in parents' attachment orientations would be associated with children's distress and memory for this highly traumatic event. Children (n = 28) were observed during forced removal from home or school by Child Protective Services due to allegations of child maltreatment. Children's memory for the removal was tested 1 week later, and biological parents (n = 28) completed an adult attachment measure. Parental attachment anxiety significantly predicted children's distress during less stressful phases of the removal, R(2) = .25, and parents' attachment-related avoidance predicted fewer correct memory reports from the children (i.e., fewer hits to open-ended questions, R(2) = .16, and fewer hits to direct questions, R(2) = .27). The findings indicate that attachment theory provides important guidance for understanding children's autobiographical memory for traumatic events.

From the first days of life, children encounter pain. Whether a result of commonly experienced medical procedures (e.g., vaccine injections) or minor injuries resulting in bumps and bruises, children frequently experience pain. Given the highly subjective nature of pain (Merskey & Bogduk, 1994) and the powerful modulating influence that one's cognitions, emotions, and behaviours can have on how pain is experienced, pain is a fascinating field for psychological inquiry. Early pain experiences provide rich learning contexts within which children's pain cognitions and behaviours are socialized. Childhood pain experiences set the stage for pain coping across the life span.One particularly important aspect of pain phenomenology is memory for pain. Pain memory is a critical cognitive requirement for children to self-report on their pain (Chan & von Baeyer, 2016) and invariably shapes their future pain coping (Noel, Chambers, Petter, et al., 2012; von Baeyer, Marche, Rocha, & Salmon, 2004). How individuals remember pain from childhood can have a lasting impact on their future pain and health behaviours well into adulthood. Children's explicit memories for pain have been implicated in the development of fears (e.g., needle phobias) and avoidance of medical care into adulthood (McMurtry et al., 2015). Moreover, conceptual models put forth to understand the development and maintenance of pediatric chronic pain and comorbid mental health issues posit that distressing pain memories may be an underlying cognitive mechanism (Holley, Willson, Noel, & Palermo, 2016). Importantly, pain memories are malleable, particularly in early childhood, making them a powerful target in psychological pain management interventions (Noel, 2016). Changing the pain memory can change the pain experience (Chen, Zeltzer, Craske, & Katz, 1999; Pickrell et al., 2007). Given the deleterious long-term impact of poorly managed acute pain (McMurtry et al., 2015) and the growing (King et al., 2011), costly (Groenewald, Wright, & Palermo, 2015), and debilitating (Palermo, 2000) epidemic of pediatric chronic pain, which pain memories may underlie, understanding the development and modifiable nature of children's pain memories is critically important.Early research on children's pain memories focused on whether or not children could be accurate reporters of their pain. This research had forensic and clinical implications, shedding light on whether or not children could reliably provide eyewitness testimony following stressful/painful events (e.g., abuse) and report on past pain for treatment purposes (e.g., prescribing of pain medications). Researchers then began to examine individual predictors of recall accuracy. Longitudinal studies on the role of pain memories in shaping subsequent pain experiences have been few and far between (Chen, Zeltzer, Craske, & Katz, 2000), and although some researchers have developed and tested interventions to modify pain memories to, in turn, alter subsequent pain experiences (Chen et al., 1999; Pickrell et al., 2007), there has been a dearth of treatment research in this area.This article provides a narrative review of the literature on children's memory for pain. It builds upon previous reviews on this topic (Noel, Chambers, Petter, et al., 2012; Ornstein, Manning, & Pelphrey, 1999; von Baeyer et al., 2004) by synthesizing literature published in the past 5 years. In light of advances in neuroimaging techniques and research in pediatric pain, we summarise relevant literature on the neurobiology of pain memories to stimulate future interdisciplinary research in this area. Given the integral role of children's pain memories in subsequent pain experiences, the potential role of pain memories in the development and maintenance of chronic pain and comorbid psychopathology (e.g., PTSD; Holley et al., 2016), and the development of new memory reframing techniques (Marche, Briere, & von Baeyer, 2016), understanding this literature, and how to advance it, is timely. …

Sticking out and fitting in: Culture-specific predictors of 3-year-olds’ autobiographical memories during joint reminiscing

PARIS, SCOTT G., and UPTON, LAURENCE R. Children's Memory for Inferential Relationships in Prose. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1976, 47, 660-668. Children's comprehension and memory for different kinds of information in prose was assessed in 2 experiments. In the first experiment, elementary school children listened to paragraphs and subsequently answered questions about explicit and implicit semantic relationships contained within the stories. Performance improved with age on all categories of questions but most dramatically on those concerning some inferential relationships. Comprehension of implied relationships improved among subjects between 6 and 10 years of age and may not reflect a simple growth in memory capacity. In experiment 2 the relationship between children's initial comprehension of story information and later free recall was investigated. The ability to understand inferred presuppositions and consequences within stories was found to be highly correlated with recall. In fact, the correlation increased significantly with age. Some strategies of inferential comprehension that may account for the developmental changes are discussed.

Individual differences in children's and adults' suggestibility and false event memory

Mother-child conversations about the past: Relationships of style and memory over time

Immunogenetic studies of juvenile dermatomyositis: HLA-DR antigen frequencies.

The present study was an investigation of effects of emotional states on children's learning and memory for a short narrative. Happy, sad, or neutral moods were induced in 72 second-grade boys and girls by a standard affect induction procedure. This mood induction was accomplished either before or after they heard a story in which two protagonists encountered a variety of experiences having an affective character. For half of the subjects, the initial story event had a positive affective valence, and for half it was negative. Children's memory for events in the narrative was assessed immediately afterward, using measures offo free recall, cued recall, and recognition. Children recalled more affective content than neutral content, and boys recalled more than girls. Valence of the initial story item and sex of subject influenced the relationship between mood state and memory for story events. Under some conditions, positive moods reduced recognition accuracy for positive material. The findings suggest that simple patterns of mood-influenced memory found in previous studies are modified by factors such as characteristics of the learner and the organization of the material to be learned. The relationship between mood and memory thus appears to be more complex than previously recognized.

BackgroundThe question of whether children and infants have memory capabilities similar to adults has long been of interest. Until recently, it was thought that compared to adults, infants have very limited memory processing abilities. Knowledge about factors affecting a child's memory abilities can help families (specifically mothers) behave in a manner that best benefits their children in language and memory skills. The present study examines one factor that may underlie a child's memory capabilities; namely the mother's narrative style.MethodsConvenience sampling was used to select participants. Forty healthy children (mean age of 31.55 months, range 25-37 months) and their mothers were entered into the study. All participants were native Turkish speakers, from similar socioeconomic status backgrounds. Memory was assessed by a modified version of the Magic Shrinking Machine. Narrative style was assessed by the mother "reading" a Frog Story; a picture book with no words in it. Children were then grouped according to their mother's level of narrative style. Children's language skills were measured via the Turkish form of the CDI (Communicative Development Inventory) which was translated to Turkish as TIGE.ResultsTo explore the relationships between mothers' narrative styles and children's memory and language skills and between children's language skills and memory capabilities, linear regressions were run. There were no significant correlations among any comparisons (P > 0.05).ConclusionsChildren's language skills do not improve according to their mothers' narrative styles, and children do not show better memory abilities when mothers use more words and longer sentences. In order to have a better understanding of these relationships, future research that includes several more variables is needed.KeywordsChild; Mother; Memory; Narrative style

This chapter focuses on the role children's physiological stress responses play in memory. It begins with a brief discussion of the rationale underlying the need to consider physiological stress responses when studying children's memory for emotional, primarily stressful, experiences. It then provides an overview of existing research that has included general measures of physiological arousal (i.e., heart rate), followed by a review of the biological systems that respond to stressful events and how arousal as driven by each of these specific systems may affect children's memory. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the need to consider developmental factors concurrent with physiological stress responses when studying children's memory for stressful events.

Children's pain memories play a powerful role in shaping future pain experiences. Interventions aiming to reframe children's memories of painful medical procedures hold promise for altering pain memories and improving subsequent pain experience; however, this evidence has not been synthesized. This brief clinical report includes a systematic review and meta-analysis of existing memory-reframing interventions for needle procedures in children and adolescents to stimulate future research. Database searches identified relevant randomized and quasi-randomized controlled trials. Data were extracted and pooled using Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) and Cochrane methodologies. Critically important outcomes included fear during a subsequent needle procedure; important outcomes included memory of fear and pain following the needle procedure and pain and distress during a subsequent needle procedure. Three studies including 158 children 3 to 18 years of age were identified. The quality of evidence was low to very low. There was no benefit for the critically important outcome of anticipatory fear; however, the test for overall effect trended toward significance (P = 0.07). Memory-reframing interventions were efficacious in altering children's memories of needle procedures to be less distressing. No benefit was found for acute fear or anticipatory, acute, or overall distress. There are limited data suggesting that interventions that reframe children's memories of needle procedures hold promise for altering pain memories and potentially reducing anticipatory fear. High-quality intervention development work is needed to determine how these interventions can be adapted to the developing child in order to lead to lasting reductions in pain, fear, and distress at future needle procedures.

M.L. Courage, N. Cowan, Introduction: What's New on the Development of Memory in Infants and Children? C. Rovee-Collier, K. Cuevas, The Development of Infant Memory. H. Hayne, G. Simcock, Memory Development in Toddlers. J.A. Hudson, E.M.Y. Mayhew, The Development of Children's Memory for Recurring Events. M.E. Lloyd, N.S. Newcombe, Implicit Memory in Childhood: Reassessing Developmental Invariance. P.J. Bauer, The Cognitive Neuroscience of the Development of Memory. D.F. Bjorklund, C. Dukes, R.D. Brown, The Development of Memory Strategies. M.L. Howe, M.L. Courage, M. Rooksby, The Genesis and Development of Autobiographical Memory. P.M. Paz-Alonso, R.P. Larson, P. Castelli, D. Alley, G. Goodman, Memory Development: Stress, Emotion, and Memory. M. Pipe, K. Salmon, Memory Development and the Forensic Context. R. Fivush, Sociocultural Perspectives on Autobiographical Memory. N. Cowan, T. Alloway, The Development of Working Memory in Childhood. J.S. Reznick, Working Memory in Infants and Toddlers. P.A. Ornstein, C. Haden, Developments in the Study of the Development of Memory.

Children's memories for pain play a powerful role in their pain experiences. Parents' memories may also influence children's pain experiences, by influencing parent-child interactions about pain and children's cognitions and behaviors. Pain catastrophizing of children and parents has been implicated as a factor underlying memory biases; however, this has not been empirically examined. The current longitudinal study is the first to examine the role of pain catastrophizing of children and parents in the development of their pain memories after surgery. Participants were 49 youth (32 girls) aged 10 to 18 years undergoing major surgery and their parents. One week before surgery, children and parents completed measures of pain catastrophizing. Two weeks after surgery (the acute recovery period), children and parents completed measures of child pain intensity and affect. Two to 4 months after surgery, children's and parents' memories of child pain intensity and affect were elicited. Hierarchical linear regression models revealed that over and above covariates, parent catastrophizing about their child's pain (magnification, rumination) accounted for a significant portion of variance in children's affective and parents' sensory pain memories. Although parent catastrophizing had a direct effect on pain memories, mediation analyses revealed that child catastrophizing (helplessness) indirectly influenced children's and parents' pain memories through the child's postoperative pain experience. Findings highlight that aspects of catastrophic thinking about child pain before surgery are linked to distressing pain memories several months later. Although both child and parent catastrophizing influence pain memory development, parent catastrophizing is most influential to both children's and parents' evolving cognitions about child pain.