A checklist and synopsis of Braconidae (Hymenoptera) in New Zealand

The Marine Biosecurity Porthole was created in 2010 as a collaboration between New Zealand's Ministry for Primary Industries (MPI) and the National Institute for Water and Atmospheric Research (NIWA) to provide greater public access to information and data on non- indigenous marine species (NIMS) in New Zealand. The porthole is primarily an interactive mapping application that allows verified observations on the distribution of NIMS within New Zealand to be displayed. It draws upon data compiled from a range of funded surveys for NIMS, including a series of port biological baseline surveys and a continuing programme of targeted surveillance for high risk marine pests in major shipping ports and marinas. The data also include records from specimens reported via the passive surveillance system and identified through the Marine Invasives Taxonomic Service (MITS), a taxonomic clearing house service for suspect marine organisms, and observations of NIMS made through taxonomic and ecological research undertaken by NIWA. It currently contains information for over 3,600 native, cryptogenic and non-indigenous marine species with links to over 155,000 individual distribution records. Additional features include a searchable catalogue of relevant reports, papers and information about NIMS and on the surveys undertaken to obtain the data. The design and functionality of the portal have been refreshed to provide a better overall experience for users. New features will allow greater filtering and selection of distribution data, more content on NIMS within New Zealand, and connections to social media.

Molecular and morphological techniques were used to examine New Zealand ascomycetous truffle (Tuber spp.) samples deposited in the Plant & Food Research and Landcare Research Fungi Herbarium collections. Truffles have been found on the roots of many Northern Hemisphere tree species growing in New Zealand, but not on indigenous plant species. Comparisons of ribosomal DNA sequences proved to be a simple and rapid method to identify the Tuber species. Tuber maculatum was by far the predominant species in New Zealand, and was distributed throughout the country. A single truffle sample from Christchurch was identified as T. rufum. Two other groups of truffle samples from Pinus spp. were closely related to anonymous Northern Hemisphere Tuber sequences. Ascocarps with these sequences have not previously been described. Specific primers for the PCR detection of these Pinus isolates were developed. None of these Tuber species accidentally introduced to New Zealand is of economic value.

ABSTRACTDryopteridaceae is a large family of ferns with 13 indigenous species in New Zealand, and Nephrolepidaceae a small family with two indigenous species. Five lectotypes are chosen for basionyms relevant to New Zealand – Aspidium cystostegium Hook., Nephrodium decompositum var. pubescens Hook., N. pentangulare Colenso, Polypodium setosum G.Forst., and Polypodium silvaticum Colenso. A neotype is designated for Nephrodium brownii Desv. No type material has been found for Aspidium coriaceum var. acutidentatum A.Rich., and the type for this remains undesignated. Lectotypes or neotypes need to be chosen for all names at specific and infraspecific rank, for which no holotype was designated by the original author, in order to fix the application of the name concerned. Justification for the choice is provided in each case. This article is a contribution towards clarifying the taxonomic and nomenclatural status of New Zealand plants for the plant names database (Ngā Tipu Aotearoa) and the electronic Flora of New Zealand.

Hibiscus trionum has generally been regarded as naturalised in Australia and New Zealand. Two varieties are sometimes accepted as occurring in Australia: H. trionum var. trionum and H. trionum var. vesicarius, with the latter occasionally treated as indigenous. Following studies of the variation within H. trionum in Australia and New Zealand we propose that there are three indigenous species in this complex. Of the three species, one, Hibiscus richardsonii, occurs in coastal regions of New South Wales, Australia and the northeastern half of the North Island, New Zealand, Hibiscus tridactylites Lindley occurs in inland southern and eastern Australia, and Hibiscus verdcourtii, described herein, occurs widely in inland Australia, especially north of latitude 28°S. In addition, we provide a description and informally recognise a diploid race of H. trionum s.l. that is widespread in New Zealand. In past treatments of the species in New Zealand this diploid race has either been treated as indigenous or included with H. richardsonii under the name “H. trionum” as naturalised. A key is provided to identify these taxa.

The tussock grass Deschampsia cespitosa, considered to be conspecific with the very polymorphic taxon which is cosmopolitan in temperate and cold regions, is currently classed amongst the 62 “vulnerable” indigenous vascular species for New Zealand. Previously more widespread here, the species’ demise in certain regions within the last century has been attributed to grazing and/or competition from aggressive introduced grasses. This study provides the first quantification of the flora, vegetation, and soil of an indigenous grassland stand dominated by D. cespitosa. Cover‐abundance data were recorded from 15 randomly placed quadrats in a localised intact stand of D. cespitosa subalpine tussockland, occupying an ancient landslide depression in eastern Fiordland. These data are related to comparable information gathered from adjacent, more extensive, Chionochloa rubra ssp. cuprea (copper) tussockland. Multivariate analysis confirmed the distinction of the two stands in terms of species abundance but indicated continuous floristic variation among the 51 plant taxa recorded. The floristic similarity for the two stands was 49%, which was not statistically significant, whereas that for the cover‐abundance data was only 5%. Soils under the site‐specific D. cespitosa stand were classified as silt loams while those of the C. rubra ssp. cuprea (copper) tussockland are sandy clay loams with water content, organic matter, and root mass all much higher in the former. The Fiordland population showed no signs of grazing use despite the presence of introduced herbivores. Only one non‐aggressive grass, amongst the three exotic species, was recorded. On the basis of this study, D. cespitosa tussockland is proposed as a new indigenous vegetation type for New Zealand.

Decay rates of above- and below-ground coarse woody debris of common tree species in New Zealand’s natural forest

Sophora microphylla (Kowhai, Fabaceae) is an endemic New Zealand species of considerable cultural, environmental and economic significance. The tree is grown widely as an ornamental in New Zealand and overseas. In September 2008, leaves with mosaic symptoms were collected from a Kowhai tree in central Auckland. Using a modified protocol of Valverde et al. (1990), double stranded (ds) RNA was isolated from 5 g of leaves from the tree with symptoms and from 5 g of symptomless leaves obtained from a healthy tree. Following electrophoresis on a 5% polyacrylamide gel, two bands (∼6 kb and 4 kb) were observed for dsRNA isolated from only the leaves with symptoms. DsRNA isolated from leaves with and without symptoms were used in a degenerate oligo-primed PCR (DOP-PCR) (Rott & Jelkmann, 2001). The banding patterns produced from each dsRNA were compared on a 1·5% agarose gel for each DOP primer. For DOP primer 5, three extra bands were observed for the dsRNA isolated from the leaves with symptoms. The three bands were cloned and sequenced. The sequence from one band showed 99% nt identity to Tobacco ringspot virus (TRSV) (GenBank Accession No. AY363727). DsRNA from the tree with symptoms was tested by one-step RT-PCR using primers for the coat protein of TRSV (Jossey & Babadoost, 2006). A 348 bp band was cloned and sequenced. The sequence from the DOP-PCR product and the coat protein PCR product overlapped. The two sequences were assembled (FJ546723) and showed a 93% nt identity to TRSV coat protein (AY363727). Using RT-PCR, TRSV was amplified from a second Kowhai plant with symptoms obtained from a home garden in west Auckland. The sequence from the PCR product (FJ546722) showed 93% nucleotide identity with TRSV (AY363727). The presence of TRSV in both trees showing symptoms was confirmed by DAS-ELISA using TRSV-specific antisera (Agdia). TRSV has a restricted host range in New Zealand, previously reported only in Daphne sp., horseradish (Armoracia rusticana) and grapevine (Vitis vinifera). This is the first report of TRSV in an indigenous plant species in New Zealand, and the first confirmed report of a virus infection in S. microphylla. TRSV is a regulated pest in many countries. The susceptibility of Kowhai to infection by TRSV has phytosanitary implications for international movement of plant material.

Cyst and radionuclide evidence demonstrate historic Gymnodinium catenatum dinoflagellate populations in Manukau and Hokianga Harbours, New Zealand

Species-specific and mixed-species volume and above ground biomass allometric equations were developed for 15 indigenous tree species and four tree fern species in New Zealand. A mixed-species tree equation based on breast height diameter (DBH) and tree height (H) provided acceptable estimates of stem plus branch (>10 cm in diameter over bark) volume, which was multiplied by live tree density to estimate dry matter. For dead standing spars, DBH, estimated original height, actual spar height and compatible volume/taper functions provided estimates of dead stem volume, which was multiplied by live tree density and a density modifier based on log decay class from field assessments to estimate dry matter. Live tree density was estimated using ratio estimators. Ratio estimators were based on biomass sample trees, and utilized density data from outerwood basic density surveys which were available for 35 tree species sampled throughout New Zealand. Foliage and branch ( < 10 cm in diameter over bark) dry matter were estimated directly from tree DBH. Tree fern above ground dry matter was estimated using allometric equations based on DBH and H. Due to insufficient data, below ground carbon for trees was estimated using the default IPCC root/shoot ratio of 25%, but for tree ferns it was estimated using measured root/shoot ratios which averaged 20%.

Phylogenetic analysis of nrDNAITS sequence data infers that New Zealand plants previously assigned to Hypericum japonicum are incorrectly placed in that species. Morphological and DNA sequence data support the recognition of two endemic and one indigenous species of Hypericum. Hypericum rubicundulum and H. minutiflorum are newly described species endemic to New Zealand, and the DNA data infer they are sister species. These two species are distinguished from H. pusillum by a rhizomatous growth habit and leaves that are grey‐green to olive‐green and usually ruddy. In comparison to H. rubicundulum, H minutiflorum has a more compact growth habit, much smaller leaves and flowers, and is restricted to the central North Island. Hypericum rubicundulum occurs in inland parts of the South Island, and is known from one collection in the North Island. Hypericum pusillum Choisy is a reinstated name, based on a Tasmanian type, that is applied to prostrate or decumbent, green and sinuate‐leaved plants from Tasmania and New Zealand. This is the m ost common species in New Zealand, occurring on North, South, and Stewart Islands.

Hydrocotyle bowlesioides, first collected in New Zealand in 1984, is recorded as a new naturalised species in New Zealand. It has been found growing in disturbed coastal habitats on the east coast of Northland and on Chatham Island. Native to Costa Rica and the west of Panama in Central America, this species has also naturalised in the southern United States and Hawaii. With densely hairy, rounded, reniform leaves it is similar to one of the indigenous species, H. novae‐zeelandiae, but it has a distinctive leaf outline, slightly hispid fruit, and a swollen tap‐root. A description, key, and table provide information to help distinguish it from the native and other fully naturalised species of Hydrocotyle in New Zealand.

Taxonomic views of the genus Utricularia (Lentibulariaceae) as it occurs in New Zealand have changed considerably since the publication of Volume 1 of the Flora of New Zealand in 1961. Examination of the seeds of the New Zealand bladderworts has assisted in further clarifying the status of some species but provides no assistance with others. We now accept three indigenous species for New Zealand: U. protrusa (the name reinstated for plants recently erroneously referred to as U. australis), U. delicatula (a New Zealand endemic distinct from the Australian U. lateriflora), and U. novae-zelandiae (including U. monanthos). The name U. gibba (instead of U. biflora) is accepted for the single naturalised species.

An annotated list is presented of all fungi known to be associated with indigenous species of Metrosideros in New Zealand. This includes information on 209 species of fungi, with records taken from the literature, as well as unpublished information associated with specimens held in Herbarium PDD and in Herbarium NZFRI(M). There are relatively few primary pathogens or other fungi specifically associated with Metrosideros. Some secondary pathogens may play a role in dieback of Metrosideros spp., especially following possum browsing. Many wood‐rotting basidiomycetes and other saprobes are included. A few endophytic fungi have been isolated from symptomless leaves. Some non‐specific vesicular‐arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi are listed, but mushroom‐like fungi are rarely recorded as Metrosideros does not form endotrophic mycorrhizal associations.

<p>Biodiversity is the basis of life on the planet Earth. Without biodiversity, ecosystems and the life within them will not thrive. Nevertheless, biodiversity currently grapples with unprecedented challenges attributed to climate change and anthropogenic development, mostly in urban landscapes. While less than 3% of the world’s land surface is covered by urban settlements, biodiversity conservation in urban landscapes is vital because historically most cities have been established at ecosystem junctions where a variety of wildlife species co-exist and interact with abiotic resources to support ecosystem health, and therefore ecosystem services which are essential to human wellbeing, and indeed survival. To support biodiversity and ensure ecosystem services in these human-occupied ecosystem junctions, developing and advancing accurate and reliable knowledge to enable the informed arrangement of ecological patterns and processes in space and time should perhaps be one of the principal tenets of landscape architecture in the twenty-first century. One way this can be fulfilled is through the spatial design of land cover patterns based upon what wildlife require to survive in such a changing and unpredictable atmosphere. Thus, there is an urgent need for undertaking research to inform landscape architecture researchers and practitioners who engage in a wide range of planned interventions in urban landscapes, including decision making on site selection and the allocation of land for human activities or nature preservation, long-term land use planning in its broad sense, urban forestry, landscape restoration, geo-design practices, etc. In this research, Wellington New Zealand is chosen as the study area. Ecologically fragmented and rapidly growing, the city has been established and continues to expand at one of the most valuable ecosystem junctions in the Southern Hemisphere. As one of the world’s most important biodiversity hotspots, New Zealand is experiencing widespread biodiversity loss in its urban landscapes. Unique but fragile, New Zealand indigenous fauna face a wide range of impacts imposed by climate change including ecosystem degradation and habitat loss, biological invasions by some exotic plants, an increased rate of predation by introduced mammals that is exacerbated by rising temperatures, the spread of diseases by introduced species, phenological changes, and food scarcity particularly during winter. In response to these threats, this research drills down into the role of spatial patterning of patches of vegetation in order to safeguard indigenous fauna against climate change in urban New Zealand where possible. The aim is to examine opportunities for biodiversity conservation through spatial planning and design based upon the habitat requirements of urban fauna as a determinant factor for shaping and characterising urban landscapes. This is conducted to contribute to an informed spatial design of land cover patterns in relation to ecological processes in order to enhance human-wildlife co-existence in urban landscapes and to support the continuation of a wide range of ecosystem services in a climate that continues to change. A novel methodology employed in this research involves (1) a questionnaire-centred survey of international scholars, (2) semi-structured interviews with New Zealand subject-matter experts, and (3) a GIS-based spatial analysis of Wellington New Zealand using a rich collection of spatial datasets. Arc Map v. 10.4.1, FRAGSTATS v.4.2, and a core set of 15 landscape metrics have been used to quantify and measure the current composition and configuration of land cover classes distributed in Wellington with regards to the spatial ecology of six keystone species endemic to New Zealand. Results provide an array of land-based information applicable in landscape architecture research and practice. According to this research, the study area has suffered from widespread land cover change and habitat loss over the last two centuries. Although a large proportion of the urban landscape is still covered by different types of green space, in most, if not all, cases, the spatial composition and configuration of patches of vegetation do not meet the minimum habitat requirements that will allow urban fauna to respond effectively to the current threats attributed to climate change. To avoid further biodiversity loss and ensure the natural regeneration of indigenous ecosystems in the region over time, this research suggests that the allocation of land for human activities and/or biodiversity conservation in urban New Zealand should be informed by an in-depth knowledge of the spatial ecology of keystone species, such as kererū and tūī. Based upon this key concept, it is informed interventions in the composition and configuration of land cover classes that are likely to contribute most effectively to safeguarding wildlife species from the local impacts of climate change in urban New Zealand, not necessarily conventional development of green spaces or increasing the percentage of green space per capita without careful strategic consideration of the location and nature of that green space. The nature and level of these interventions should be determined with particular regard to the floristic nature of each land cover class as well as ecological interactions between the land cover classes and urban fauna in space and time. These findings are discussed, depicted, and illustrated in detail and reveal, for the first time, an integrated picture of current capacities and bottlenecks for biodiversity conservation through spatial planning in the context of climate change in urban New Zealand. The research ends with ten spatially-explicit recommendations for landscape architecture and land use planning practitioners in urban New Zealand, proposing practical solutions for achieving optimised landscape pattern compositions and configurations for safeguarding urban fauna against the impacts of climate change where possible. The research also opens up six specific areas of inquiry for future research in New Zealand and other regions with similar issues and challenges, worldwide. While the research places particular emphasis on urban New Zealand, lessons learned can contribute to the body of landscape architecture knowledge on a global scale, and show that landscape architects have a critical role in maintaining and increasing the well-being of people in cities through focusing on the health of urban biodiversity.</p>

The Asian paper wasp (Polistes chinensis) is an invasive species in New Zealand and a voracious arthropod predator, incorporating a wide range of prey into its diet. We examined the colony survival and prey community composition of these wasps in a protected coastal habitat in New Zealand. Paper wasp colonies at this site were surveyed and monitored weekly over two summers. Our data showed that only ~20% of the monitored colonies each year survived until late summer, with high rates of colony mortality in late spring and early summer. We collected samples of wasp larval guts over a temporal gradient in one nesting season, and via DNA metabarcoding analysis, we identified the prey species consumed. The prey species most frequently identified in larval samples were endemic cicadas and several lepidopteran species. No native arthropod species of known conservation concern were identified in the analysis. However, 63% of the unique taxon sequences retrieved could not be identified by genus or species level, likely due to the absence of reference barcodes. These taxa may represent a group of understudied species, potentially highly endemic or localised. Our analysis indicates that these invasive wasps are opportunistic‐generalist predators with the potential to exert high predation pressure on native arthropods. P. chinensis may be preying on a range of understudied species, especially in remote, natural habitats across New Zealand. We recommend future studies continue to barcode native New Zealand arthropods in order to improve the taxonomic assignments of dietary studies.