A Brief Review on Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater and its Health Effects in Uttar Pradesh, India

The problem of high fluoride concentration in groundwater resources has become one of the most important toxicological and geo-environmental issues in India. Excessive fluoride in drinking water causes dental and skeletal fluorosis, which is encountered in endemic proportions in several parts of the world. World Health Organization (WHO) guideline value and the permissible limit of fluoride as per Bureau of Indian Standard (BIS) is 1.5 mg/L. About 20 states of India, including 43 blocks of seven districts of West Bengal, were identified as endemic for fluorosis and about 66 million people in these regions are at risk of fluoride contamination. Studies showed that withdrawal of sources identified for fluoride often leads reduction of fluoride in the body fluids (re-testing urine and serum after a week or 10 days) and results in the disappearance of non-skeletal fluorosis within a short duration of 10-15 days. To determine the prevalence of signs and symptoms of suspected dental, skeletal, and non-skeletal fluorosis, along with food habits, addictions, and use of fluoride containing toothpaste among participants taking water with fluoride concentration above the permissible limit, and to assess the changes in clinical manifestations of the above participants after they started consuming safe drinking water. A longitudinal intervention study was conducted in three villages in Rampurhat Block I of Birbhum district of West Bengal to assess the occurrence of various dental, skeletal, and non-skeletal manifestations of fluorosis, along with food habits, addictions, and use of fluoride containing toothpaste among the study population and the impact of taking safe water from the supplied domestic and community filters on these clinical manifestations. The impact was studied by follow-up examination of the participants for 5 months to determine the changes in clinical manifestations of the above participants after they started consuming safe drinking water from supplied domestic filters and community filter with fluoride concentration below the permissible limit. The data obtained were compared with the collected data from the baseline survey. The prevalence of signs of dental, skeletal, and non-skeletal fluorosis was 66.7%, 4.8-23.8%, and 9.5-38.1%, respectively, among the study population. Withdrawal of source(s) identified for fluoride by providing domestic and community filters supplying safe water led to 9.6% decrease in manifestation of dental fluorosis, 2.4-14.3% decrease in various manifestations of skeletal fluorosis, and 7.1-21.5% decrease in various non-skeletal manifestations within 5 months. Following repeated motivation of participants during visit, there was also 9.7-38.1% decrease in the usage of fluoride containing toothpaste, and 9.8-45.3% and 7.3-11.9% decrease in the consumption of black lemon tea and tobacco, respectively, which are known sources of fluoride ingestion in our body and have an effect on the occurrence of various manifestations of fluorosis following drinking of safe water from domestic and community filters. Increased prevalence of dental, skeletal, and non-skeletal fluorosis was found among the study population. Withdrawal of source(s) identified for fluoride by supplying domestic and community filters, dietary restriction, and other nutritional interventions led to decrease in manifestation of the three types of fluorosis within 5 months.

Ground water is well described through some physical and chemical characteristics viz temperature, pH, turbidity, electric conductivity, total dissolved solid, total hardness, total alkalinity, nitrates, chlorides, fluorides and metal ions like calcium, magnesium, iron etc. Ground water is commonly used as drinking water for human worldwide, because it is quite economic, easy to use and less vulnerable to contamination than surface water. Nowadays, industrialization, urbanization, fast growth of civilization and increase in population have led to deterioration of the groundwater quality rapidly. Domestic and industrial discharge, landfills, improper drainage system, seepage through sewer lines, agricultural practices such as intense use of pesticides and fertilizers, uneven rainfall and mismanagement are some of major causes for its pollution. Therefore, it is necessary that the quality of ground water should be checked regularly for some physical and chemical parameters as their presence in water above the permissible limit has a serious effect on human health. Hence assessment of physicochemical characteristics of ground water is very important for human health studies and therefore an important research topic in recent years. In the present work, physicochemical characteristics associated with ground water are reviewed along with their health effects.

Groundwater quality is crucial for rural communities, especially in regions where sanitation practices directly influence aquifer health. This study evaluates the impact of seasonal changes on the physico-chemical characteristics of groundwater in Sheikhpura village, Patna, Bihar, India, with particular attention to the role of onsite sanitation systems. Water samples were systematically collected from hand pumps and shallow wells over three distinct seasons—pre-monsoon, monsoon, and post-monsoon. Each sample was analyzed for pH, temperature, electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), total hardness, alkalinity, nitrate, chloride, phosphate phosphorus, and major ions (Na⁺, K⁺, Ca²⁺), adopting standard APHA (1998) protocols. The results reveal pronounced seasonal variations in water quality, with contamination levels peaking during the monsoon, attributed to increased surface runoff and leaching from sanitation sources. Greater fluctuations in parameters were observed in summer and rainy seasons, indicating vulnerability of groundwater sources to contamination due to dynamic recharge and dilution patterns. The study demonstrates the need for regulated distances between drinking water sources and sanitation structures, enhanced sanitation design and routine monitoring to mitigate risks to safe drinking water. The aim of this research is to inform policy decisions and guide local interventions for safe water supply by highlighting seasonal vulnerabilities in sanitation-influenced rural aquifers. Keywords: Groundwater Quality, Seasonal Variation, Physico-Chemical Parameters, Sanitation Impact, Sheikhpura, Bihar, India.

Groundwater is the most abundant liquid freshwater on earth. Rapid urbanization in developing nations (like India) has led to increased groundwater withdrawal, adversely affecting the physicochemical characteristics. Ranchi district, Jharkhand, is a part of the smart city mission development plan of the government of India. Hence, to ensure safe and clean drinking water, it is necessary to assess groundwater quality and devise development plans. Seventeen physicochemical properties and metal(loid)s contents were analyzed to determine the groundwater quality. Various pollution indices such as water quality index (WQI), metal evaluation index (MI), heavy metal pollution index (HPI), and modified degree of contamination (mCd) are evaluated using arithmetic weighted value index and presented in a map using Arc GIS inverse distance weighting interpolation method. Chemometric analyses such as correlation, principal component, and cluster analysis were done to identify the source and determine the pollution state. A multiple linear regression model is employed to predict the impact of heavy metal and metalloid concentration on the WQI of the region. WQI shows that groundwater quality in Khelari (100.95) and Bundu (92.52) regions are highly degraded, whereas MI and HPI suggest that Ormanjhi (MI = 53.98) and Rahe (HPI = 109.20) are highly affected by metal contamination. The mCd suggests that Ormanjhi (97.15) has the highest degree of contamination. The contaminant sources were natural (geogenic processes) and anthropogenic (mining and industrial emissions). The high metal(loid)s concentration may soon result in groundwater quality degradation in the metal-affected regions.

This study, conducted in Tala Upazila (with > 0.3 million people) situated in a coastal district of Bangladesh, endeavors to identify the water quality situation and to assess people’s willingness to pay for safe drinking water; with a view to develop policies and programs to improve people’s access to safe and affordable drinking water in the coastal area. A total of 4500 households were surveyed for getting relevant information on willingness to pay of households, while water quality test was performed at 649 high dependent drinking water sources (basically tubewells) for identifying arsenic, salinity and iron concentration. Arsenic test results revealed that overall 36.5% of tested drinking water sources; 63% shallow tubewells and 14% deep tubewells were unsafe due to the presence of high levels of arsenic beyond Bangladesh standard. Electrical conductivity, which is a measure of salinity was very high in about 94% of the tested water sources; while 61% of tested sources had iron concentration higher than the Bangladesh standard. It is evident from the study that people are aware of these problems and on an average, 91% of the households were willing to pay for improving access to safe drinking water. Regardless of economic class, most of the households (75%) were willing to pay BDT 20.0 (0.25 USD) per week for 20 L safe water per day, which is equivalent to 2–6% of their respective monthly income to access safe drinking water. Logistic regression model identified monthly household income, tubewell ownership, distance of drinking water source, etc., as some determinants of households’ willingness to pay for safe drinking water. Encouraging peoples who are currently drinking arsenic-contaminated tubewell water to shift their sources to nearby arsenic free tubewells may be a cost-effective solution to this problem. Engaging community-based WatSan committee (a local committee comprising the user communities for supervising water and sanitation related activities) including local government representatives to design an affordable water tariff structure and generating sufficient revenue to cover the cost of water services in the community would be an effective and sustainable solution to improve access of safe and affordable drinking water in the coastal area of Bangladesh.

Informing NCD control efforts in India on the eve of Ayushman Bharat

Safe drinking water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) are fundamental to improving standards of living for people. The improved standards made possible by WASH include, among others, better physical health, protection of the environment, better educational outcomes, convenience time savings, assurance of lives lived with dignity, and equal treatment for both men and women. Poor and vulnerable populations have lower access to improved WASH services and have poorer associated behaviors. Improved WASH is therefore central to reducing poverty, promoting equality, and supporting socioeconomic development. Drinking water and sanitation were targets in the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for 2015; under the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) for the post-2015 period, Member States of the United Nations (UN) aspire to achieve universal access to WASH by 2030. The Human Right to Safe Drinking Water and Sanitation (HRTWS) was adopted in 2010 under a UN resolution calling for safe, affordable, acceptable, available, and accessible drinking water and sanitation services for all.The scope of WASH services included in this chapter is shown in table 9.1. The focus is on services at the household and institutional level and on services for personal rather than productive uses.This chapter summarizes global evidence on current WASH coverage and effects of intervention options, and it recommends areas for research and policy. Evidence comes from published synthesized evidence, such as systematic reviews and meta-analyses, evidence papers, and literature reviews. When those sources were not available, evidence was compiled from the next best sources of published research, thus using accepted criteria of the hierarchy of evidence for studies on health effectiveness. Unpublished and grey literature was used where no peer-reviewed published evidence exists.This chapter is structured as follows: Progress in improving drinking water, sanitation, and hygiene coverage Impacts of poor WASH, thereby summarizing the evidence on the continued decline in mortality from diarrheal disease and the emerging evidence on the long-term developmental and cognitive effects of inadequate WASH on children Effectiveness of interventions, thereby examining the health effects of specific WASH interventions, the approaches to service delivery, and the key role of broader institutional policy in accelerating and sustaining progress Intervention costs, efficiency, and sustainability, thereby assessing the socioeconomic returns of improved WASH and considering the requirements for populations to have continued access to WASH services Challenges, opportunities, and recommendations. This chapter uses the World Health Organization (WHO) classification of superregions as follows: Africa, the Americas, South-East Asia, Europe, Eastern Mediterranean, and Western Pacific.

Around 9000 inhabitants in the Panda River basin, Sonbhadhra District, Uttar Pradesh, India, are vulnerable to a “silent” dental and skeletal fluorosis from groundwater consumption. The fluoride source and seasonal groundwater quality variation were studied by collecting 65 groundwater samples in the Upper Panda River basin. Major rock types are phyllites and granite gneissic rocks. Fluoride concentrations are in the range 0.4–5.6 mg/L in the pre-monsoon season and 0.1–6.7 mg/L in the post-monsoon season. Fluor-apatite and biotite mica in the granite gneissic rock were identified as the main provenance of fluoride in the groundwater through water–rock interactions. Due to precipitation of calcium, soils become alkaline with high contents of sodium; these conditions allow fluoride to accumulate in water. According to risk index calculations, the fluoride-affected villages were shown to fall in the fluoride risk zone (with a risk index of around 1.7). On the basis of mineral stability diagrams, groundwater from the weathered and fractured aquifers appears to be stable within the kaolinite field, suggesting weathering of silicate minerals. The groundwater is chemically potable and suitable for domestic and agricultural purposes, except for a few wells in the southern region that are contaminated with high amounts of fluoride. Editor D. Koutsoyiannis Citation Raju, N.J., Dey, S., Gossel, W., and Wycisk, P., 2012. Fluoride hazard and assessment of groundwater quality in the semi-arid Upper Panda River basin, Sonbhadra District, Uttar Pradesh, India. Hydrological Sciences Journal, 57 (7), 1433–1452.

Background:Excessive fluoride in drinking water causes dental, skeletal and non-skeletal fluorosis which is encountered in endemic proportions in several parts of the world. The World Health Organization (WHO) guideline value and the permissible limit of fluoride as per the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) is 1.5 mg/L. Studies showed that withdrawal of sources identified for fluoride, often leads to reduction of fluoride in the body fluids (re-testing urine and serum after a week or ten days) and results in the disappearance of non-skeletal fluorosis within a short duration of 10-15 days.Objective:To determine the prevalence of signs and symptoms of suspected dental, skeletal and non-skeletal fluorosis along with food habits, addictions and use of fluoride-containing toothpaste among participants taking water with fluoride concentration above permissible limit and to assess the changes in clinical manifestations of the above participants after consumption of safe drinking water with fluoride concentration below permissible limit.Materials and Methods:A longitudinal intervention study was conducted from October 2010 to December 2011 in a village selected randomly in Purulia District of West Bengal which is endemic for fluorosis. Thirty-six families with 104 family members in the above village having history of taking unsafe water containing high level of fluoride were selected for the study. The occurrence of various dental, skeletal and non-skeletal manifestations of fluorosis along with food habits, addictions and use of fluoride-containing toothpaste among the study population was assessed; the impact of taking safe water with fluoride concentration below permissible limit from a supplied community filter on these clinical manifestations was studied by follow-up examination of the above participants for six months. The data obtained is compared with the collected data from the baseline survey.Results:The prevalence of signs and symptoms of dental, skeletal and non-skeletal fluorosis was (18.26%), (18.26-43.26%) and (12.49-38.46%) among the study population. Withdrawal of source(s) identified for fluoride by providing community filters supplying safe water along with nutritional interventions lead to 1.92% decrease of manifestation of dental fluorosis, 2.88-18.26% decrease of manifestations of skeletal fluorosis and 3.8-5.77% decrease in manifestations of non-skeletal fluorosis within six months. Following repeated motivation of participants during visit there was also 2.88% decrease in the usage of fluoride-containing toothpaste, 4.81% decrease in consumption of black lemon tea, supari and tobacco which are known sources of fluoride ingestion in our body.Conclusion:Increased prevalence of dental, skeletal and non-skeletal fluorosis was found among the study population. Withdrawal of sources(s) identified for fluoride by supplying community filter, dietary restriction and other nutritional interventions led to decrease of manifestations of the three types of fluorosis within six months. The government should play a vital role in ensuring drinking water safety at the household and community level by supplying domestic filters at affordable costs and community filter along with nutritional intervention to the fluorosis-affected villages on a priority basis to mitigate the problem.

This study was conducted in the summer season (May, 2007). The fluoride concentration along with other physico-chemical parameters in ground water samples was determined in Marks Nagar of Unnao district, Uttar Pradesh (India), since it is the only source of drinking water for the villagers. The fluoride concentration in the water varied from 0.8 to 13.9 mgl(-1) with a mean of 4.02 mgl(-1). The correlation analysis revealed that fluoride had a positive correlation with pH, CO(3), HCO(3), and sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), whereas a negative correlation with Ca and Mg was found. A soil profile was also dug in the area to assess depth-wise fluoride content in the soil. The soil samples and underneath calcium carbonate (CaCO(3)) concretion were analyzed for fluoride content. The percent of soluble fluoride to total fluoride in the soil varied from 25.15 to 4.76% down the soil profile. The soluble fluoride was found to decrease with the increase in the clay content in the soil. The total leachable fluoride in CaCO(3) concretions was found to be 6.08%. It was inferred from this study that the soil and underneath layer of CaCO(3) concretions may be the potential source of fluoride contamination in the shallow drinking water sources of the area.

Dr Greg Allgood with orphans in Orongo. More children die from diarrheal illness − about 1.8 million each year − than from HIV/AIDS and malaria combined. The vast majority of these needless deaths in the developing world can be eliminated by improved water quality, hygiene, and sanitation. Water quality, in particular, has been largely ignored in public health efforts during the last two decades, yet research has shown that water purification technologies used at the household level can save a huge number of lives. Nurses are providing a critical role in the education and training needed for community acceptance of the new technologies. A policy shift towards household water treatment can provide a rapid and cost effective approach that can be scaled up to prevent the 4000 deaths of children that occur every day. The majority of efforts in the water and sanitation sector during the last several decades were focused on providing water access to reduce the burden of collecting water; building latrines to prevent the contamination of water sources by human feces; and promotion of hand washing and other hygiene measures to prevent the spread of infectious diarrhea such as following defecation. A review by Esrey et al. (1985) showed that interventions of improved water quality provided less diarrhea reduction than improved water access, sanitation, and hygiene. However, the Esrey review examined improved water quality based on the point of collection, such as provision of standpipes, and did not examine the impact of improving water quality at the point that it is used, such as in the home. During the last decade, more than 30 randomized controlled studies involving more than 53 000 people have been conducted with a variety of interventions that improve water quality at the point-of-use or household level. A recent review of these studies by Clasen et al. (2006) demonstrated conclusively that improving water quality at the household level dramatically reduces diarrheal illness and, therefore, can save lives. The four types of proven interventions include: (1) solar disinfection or SODIS, (2) chlorination through a product typically named Waterguard or Sur L'Eau, (3) ceramic or biosand filtration, and (4) combined coagulation-disinfection through a Procter & Gamble (P&G) product called PUR Purifier of Water. A variety of technologies are needed, given the different needs of more than a billion people without safe drinking water. The technologies are all relatively low cost and are being provided inclusive of education, training, and the technology at a cost of less than US$0.01 per liter. In 2004, a number of organizations joined together under the leadership of the World Health Organization to create the International Network to Promote Household Water Treatment and Safe Storage (WHO 2007). This Network focuses on research, implementation, communication, and advocacy for household water treatment. The International Council of Nurses (ICN) was a founding member of the Network and has played a leading role in advocating these new technologies to nurses. P&G and ICN created a strategic alliance in 2002 to improve health with safe drinking water. P&G provides PUR Purifier of Water as a not-for-profit program called the Children's Safe Drinking Water Program, the signature program of P&G's global cause – Live, Learn and Thrive – aimed at improving the lives of children in need. P&G has committed to provide 3.5 billion liters of safe drinking water via the Children's Safe Drinking Water Program by 2012. As part of the P&G and ICN alliance, ICN developed a fact sheet entitled, ‘Safe Household Water: Prevents Disease, Saves Lives’, and has held scientific sessions at each of its Congresses since 2003 (International Council of Nurses 2003). In addition, ICN has partnered with P&G to provide safe drinking water in Guatemala, Malawi, Uganda, and Kenya. Together, we have learned that successful implementation of household water treatment requires credible sustained communication on proper use as well as reinforcing the benefits of improved water quality. Similar to the way that engineers have been on the front lines of providing water access through digging wells, nurses have been effective on the front lines of the effort to educate people on household water treatment. Importantly, we have discovered some of the most effective communication venues both for enabling sustained habit change as well as serving the most vulnerable. Specifically, the most effective strategies include the education of mothers on safe drinking water at health clinics such as during immunization days; provision of safe drinking water to people living with AIDS; the education of children as positive catalysts for community change; the provision of safe drinking water to malnourished children; and the use of household water treatment for cholera prevention. While each of these strategies involves nurses, some of the greatest successes targeting safe drinking water to the most vulnerable has involved health clinics, schools, and HIV/AIDS programs. Infant children are particularly vulnerable to the pathogens in contaminated drinking water. The time from weaning to development of a full immune system is the time that providing safe drinking water provides the greatest benefit. Because of this, reaching the caregivers of children at health clinics during immunization days and well-baby visits is one of the most effective strategies for the adoption of household water treatment. Anyone who has visited a health clinic in Africa knows that a mother who brings her child typically has a long day of travel and waiting. The mothers are usually nervous about their child receiving the vaccination but they understand that this bit of pain provides long-term protection. Through the work of nurses, we have learned that a visit to the health clinic can also provide mothers with education on the use of household water treatment. The mothers enjoy seeing the lively demonstrations conducted by nurses in which dirty and contaminated water is turned to clear and clean water. In addition, the demonstrations relieve the mothers' tension caused by the immunizations their babies are receiving. Research by the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) (Parker et al. 2006) showed that one year following a nurse recommendation, 71% of mothers reached in a Kenyan health clinic were still using household water treatment. School children can be catalysts for change in communities and we have found that they can be very effective in leading the adoption of household water treatment. P&G and our partners will have reached more than one million school children in the developing world by the end of 2009 with safe drinking water. These classroom sessions are demonstrated by nurses in programs with World Vision, Save the Children, PSI, CARE, and others. One of these programs in Malawi with World Vision and PSI measured a 57% decrease in school absenteeism, a 53% decrease in diarrheal disease among the community, and a 75% increase in pit latrine coverage in schools (World Vision 2008). In addition, through a partnership with ICN, safe drinking water is being provided to orphans, many of whom were orphaned from HIV/AIDS, in Kenya, Malawi, and Uganda. We found that safe drinking water and hygiene education not only reduced diarrheal illness, but led to improved social status of the orphanages in the communities because of the availability of purified water. Similar to infants, people with HIV/AIDS are particularly vulnerable to pathogens in drinking water and frequently have severe and persistent diarrhea. Water-borne parasitic infections caused by Cryptosporidium and Giardia are a particular problem, and while these infections are generally self-limiting in healthy individuals, they are frequently fatal in people with AIDS. Nurses in western Kenya started providing household water treatment products of chlorination (Waterguard) or coagulation/disinfection (PUR) to people with AIDS in 2003. The nurses began reporting anecdotally, the Lazarus type of recovery that occurs following administration of antiretroviral drugs. Based on these reports and more careful documentation of the quality of life improvement by the CDC (Lule et al. 2005), we began scaling up provision of safe drinking water to people with AIDS and have seen dramatic impacts on health through implementation programs with a dozen partners. Provision of safe drinking water for people with AIDS is a critical intervention since the absorption of antiretroviral drugs will be impaired if there is persistent diarrhea. The U.S. President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR) is helping to provide more than 100 million liters of safe drinking water to people with HIV/AIDS in Ethiopia and Cote d'Ivoire through collaboration with CARE, Population Services International, P&G, and a number of other partners. Because safe drinking water for a person with AIDS can be provided at only US$0.02 per day, it is essential that this effort be scaled up in areas where people drink contaminated water. Due largely to the efforts of nurses in the developing world, and important new public private partnerships, household water treatment is being scaled up to save thousands of lives. There is great urgency to do more so that children do not die needlessly from lack of something as simple as clean water. Greg Allgood, PhD. is the Director of the Children's Safe Drinking Water Program at Procter and Gamble (P&G). He has a PhD in toxicology and Master of Science in Public Health. He is chair of the Communication and Advocacy Working Group of WHO's International Network to Promote Household Water Treatment and Safe Storage, and is also on the Advisory Board of the Clinton Global Initiative Health Track.

Ground water is considered to be very clean and safe in past days but in recent decades rapid industrialization causes severe environmental problems in most of the countries, due to the discharge of effluents into groundwater by industries like textile, dyeing, leather, tannery, pulp and paper processing industries etc., The effluent discharged by these industries leads to serious pollution which altered the geochemical parameters of surface water and ground water. Since the quality of public health depends to a greater extent on the quality of drinking water. Safe drinking water is primary need of every human being. Pollution of groundwater has been growing increasingly in several parts of India, particularly in areas of industrial development. Over burden of population pressure, unplanned urbanization, over exploitation of groundwater resources, dumping of polluted water at inappropriate place enhance the infiltration of harmful compounds to the groundwater. With the increasing demand for groundwater resources caused by an acute shortage of surface water, there is a noteworthy depletion of groundwater levels and quality due to geogenic as well as anthropogenic activities. The tanning industry is one of the oldest and fastest growing industries in south and south-east Asia. The states of Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and Uttar Pradesh together have 88% of the tannery units of the country. About 55% of total leather processed in the county is from Tamil Nadu and tannery units mainly spreads over Ranipet, Ambur, Vaniyambadi, Pernambut of Vellore district, Pallavaram and Chrompet in Chennai, Dindigul, parts of Erode district and Sembattu in Trichy district (CLRI, 1990). Water, due to its great solvent power, is constantly threatened to get polluted easily.

Geophagy, the act of deliberately eating clay is a common practice among pregnant women and children in Nigeria. Several edible Clays such as Montmorillonite, Chabazite-Na, Diaspore, Faujasite-Na, Lizardite-1M, Montmorillonite 15A, lizardite and Montmorillonite were collected across the country from the following states Bauchi, Benue, Gombe, Kogi, Nasarawa, Osun and Plateau respectively. Geochemical analysis were carried out using the XRD and ICP-OES to determine the elements in the clay and the mineralogy of the clay. Heavy metals analyzed for include Aluminium (AL), Arsenic (As), Chromiun (Cr), Cupper (Cu), Iron (Fe), Lead (Pb), Selinium (Se) and Zinc (Zn). The result of the analysis indicates that the Heavy metals have very high concentrations in almost all the clay samples collected. The level of contamination of As, Pb, and Se in the clays from all the states of the study area is also exceptionally high. These metals occur in concentrations far above the WHO recommended dose for human consumption and hence may contribute to so many health hazards, like deformed babies and different types of cancers among women. Normal 0 false false false EN-US X-NONE AR-SA

Groundwater quality and associated human health risk assessment in parts of Raebareli district, Uttar Pradesh, India

The Forest and the Trees: How Population-Level Health Protections Sometimes Fail the Individual