90 Years of Gödel’s Incompleteness Theorems: Historical and Philosophical Perspectives

Introduction: This article describes the basic aesthetic orientation and cultural characteristics of Chinese musical culture. It examines the origin of Chinese musical culture and the process of its development from a philosophical point of view, and presents the Chinese national philosophical thought embedded in Chinese musical culture in the context of modern society. Objective: The purpose of this paper is to clarify the internal dynamics and basic characteristics of the lineage of Chinese musical culture during its emergence, development and exchange from the perspective of ethnophilosophy. Theoretical Framework:Based on the cognition of music through ancient Chinese philosophical thought, this paper 1) proposes the ideological connotation and aesthetic foundation of the origin of Chinese musical culture 2）uses the time division between ancient Chinese music and modern Chinese music to examine Chinese musical culture at different stages of development 3) explores the internal thought of the development and inheritance of Chinese music in the context of modern society from the perspectives of cultural mixing and cultural influence. Method: This research was completed by adopting research methods such as textual analysis, generalization, and classification. Results and Discussion:Through the exploration of the origin of Chinese music culture and the cultural characteristics of different development processes, we will clarify the meaning and specific presentation of the national philosophical thought of “harmony and difference” as the root of Chinese music culture. Research Implications: From the perspective of national philosophy, the internal motive of the development of Chinese musical culture has been clarified, and it is a more characteristic research perspective for sorting out the complete lineage of Chinese musical culture. At the same time, it provides a more positive direction for the development of modern Chinese musical culture. Originality/Value: This paper innovates from the perspective of national philosophy, analyzes and examines the characteristics and actual presentation of Chinese musical culture in different periods, extracts the causes of the main body from the object phenomenon, and establishes an effective correlation between musicology and philosophy.

In current world, the development of artificial intelligence is in the ascendant, which also has had a profound and extensive impact on human’s living and development. Among many artificial intelligence, “AI Face Changing” is a relatively new and cutting-edge one in the world. From the perspective of pure technical professionalism, this technology is very powerful. However, from a philosophical point of view, this kind of artificial intelligence seriously has challenged the highest value goal of human’s activities. The highest value goals of human’s activities mainly include three, that is, seeking truth, goodness and beauty. The “AI Face Changing” can be said to bring a serious challenge to the three highest goals of human’s activities. From the perspective of philosophy, according to some basic principles of Marxist philosophy and combined with social reality, this paper mainly analyzed the challenge of “AI Face Changing” to the above-mentioned highest value goal of human’s activities.

This text is an attempt to see sport in different ways in the light of ancient philosophical themes. Philosophy of sports gets less attention than other areas of the discipline that examine the other major components of contemporary society: philosophy of religion, political philosophy, aesthetics, and philosophy of science. Talking about sports is often cheap, but it does not have to be that way. One of the reasons for this is insufficiently paid attention to the relation between sport and philosophy in Greek. That is it's important to talk about sports, just as important as we are talking about religion, politics, art and science. The argument of the present text is that we can try to get a handle philosophically on sports by examining it in light of several key idea from ancient Greek philosophy. The ancient Greeks, tended to be hylomorphists who gloried in both physical and mental achievement. Тhe key concepts from Greek philosophy that will provide the support to the present text are the following: arete, sophrosyne, dynamis and kalokagathia. These ideals never were parts of a realized utopia in the ancient world, but rather provided a horizon of meaning. We will claim that these ideals still provide worthy standards that can facilitate in us a better understanding of what sports is and what it could be. How can a constructive dialogue be developed which would discuss differences in understanding of sport in Ancient Greece and today? In this paper, the authors will try to answer this question from a historical and philosophical point of view. The paper is divided into three sections. The first section of the paper presents two principally different forms or models of focus in sport competitions – focus on physical excellence or focus on game. The dialectic discourse regarding these two approaches to physical activity is even more interesting due to the fact that these two models take precedence over one another depending on context. In the second section of the paper, the focus shifts to theendemic phenomenon of the Ancient Greek Olympic Games, where the topic is discussed from the perspective of philosophy with frequent historical reflections on the necessary specifics, which observeman as a physical-psychological-social-spiritual being. In the third section of this paper, the authors choose to use the thoughts and sayings of the great philosopher Plato to indicate how much this philosopher wasactually interested in the relationship between soul and body, mostly through physical exercise and sport, because it seems that philosophers who came after him have not seriously dealt with this topic in Plato’s way, although they could.

This text is an attempt to see sport in different ways in the light of ancient philosophical themes. Philosophy of sports gets less attention than other areas of the discipline that examine the other major components of contemporary society: philosophy of religion, political philosophy, aesthetics, and philosophy of science. Talking about sports is often cheap, but it does not have to be that way. One of the reasons for this is insufficiently paid attention to the relation between sport and philosophy in Greek. That is it's important to talk about sports, just as important as we are talking about religion, politics, art and science. The argument of the present text is that we can try to get a handle philosophically on sports by examining it in light of several key idea from ancient Greek philosophy. The ancient Greeks, tended to be hylomorphists who gloried in both physical and mental achievement. Тhe key concepts from Greek philosophy that will provide the support to the present text are the following: arete, sophrosyne, dynamis and kalokagathia. These ideals never were parts of a realized utopia in the ancient world, but rather provided a horizon of meaning. We will claim that these ideals still provide worthy standards that can facilitate in us a better understanding of what sports is and what it could be. How can a constructive dialogue be developed which would discuss differences in understanding of sport in Ancient Greece and today? In this paper, the authors will try to answer this question from a historical and philosophical point of view. The paper is divided into three sections. The first section of the paper presents two principally different forms or models of focus in sport competitions – focus on physical excellence or focus on game. The dialectic discourse regarding these two approaches to physical activity is even more interesting due to the fact that these two models take precedence over one another depending on context. In the second section of the paper, the focus shifts to theendemic phenomenon of the Ancient Greek Olympic Games, where the topic is discussed from the perspective of philosophy with frequent historical reflections on the necessary specifics, which observeman as a physical-psychological-social-spiritual being. In the third section of this paper, the authors choose to use the thoughts and sayings of the great philosopher Plato to indicate how much this philosopher wasactually interested in the relationship between soul and body, mostly through physical exercise and sport, because it seems that philosophers who came after him have not seriously dealt with this topic in Plato’s way, although they could.

Felsefe dille yapılan ve dilde ortaya çıkan bir çalışmadır. Varlığı, insanı, toplumu, ahlâk ve değeri ifade edebilme gücü, bir dilin felsefe potansiyelini de ortaya koyar. Büyük felsefelerin üretildiği diller, varlığı ayrıntılı ve kapsayıcı bir şekilde düşünmeye izin veren dillerdir. Felsefe ve dil arasındaki “dönüşümlü” ve “karşılıklı” ilişki, sadece dilden düşünceye değil, düşünceden dile doğru da yansır; en geniş anlamıyla varlığa verilen anlam, varlığı ifade etmedeki yetenek ve beceri, dilin gelişmesi ve zenginleşmesi yönünde bir katkıdır. Dilin potansiyeli felsefenin, felsefenin potansiyeli de dilin imkânıdır. Dil ile zihin arasındaki yakın ilişki dikkate alındığında, Divanü Lûgat-it-Türk’ün doğrudan kendi dönemindeki ortak akıl ve zihniyete tanıklık ettiği düşünülebilir. Divanü Lûgat-it-Türk, Türk kültürünün en eski ve en önemli metinlerinden biridir. Yabancılara Türkçe öğretmek amacıyla yazılan bu eser, basit anlamıyla bir sözlük çalışması değil, dil öğretiminin somutlaştırıcı ve örnekleyici yapısı gereği şiir, atasözü, hikâye, folklor gibi dönemin dil ve kültür birikiminden örnekler sunan bir “seçki” niteliğindedir. Bu anlamda insan, Tanrı ve evren tasavvuru çerçevesinde Türkçenin felsefe potansiyelinin ilk defa en ileri derecede sergilendiği eserlerden biridir. Bu makale, söz konusu metindeki felsefî içeriği ele almayı ve bu içerikten örnekler sunmayı amaçlamaktadır. Çalışmada kelimler, deyimler, atasözleri, şiirler, hikâyeler, örnek cümleler, felsefî içerik ve çağrışımları açısından ele alınacaktır. Bu birikim, felsefenin bütüncül bakışını yansıtacak şekilde: (1) varlık anlayışı, (2) bilgi anlayışı, (3) insan anlayışı, (4) etik ve estetik değerler çerçevesinde olacaktır.

Ecological environment has become a hot topic of human society. How to build an ecological environment system more in line with the development trend of modern life has become an urgent problem to be solved. This paper reexamines the ecological environment from the perspective of nature, human and society, we find that it is imperative to reconstruct the ecological environment. From the philosophical point of view, this paper studies on ecological environment problems and finds out the ways to solve the ecological environment crisis by means of technology. Nowadays, with the rapid development and wide application of virtual reality technology, its advantages are becoming more and more prominent. This research uses virtual reality technology to apply to ecological planning. Taking a certain place in Northwest China as an example, the virtual reality technology of VRML is used to create the virtual reality system of ecological planning to realize the reconstruction of ecological environment.

In this paper I will analyze John McDowell’s broad account of practical rationality and moral reasons, which he mainly puts forward in his articles “Are moral requirements hypothetical imperatives?” (1978) and “Might there be external reasons?” (1995). My main aim is to argue that from a philosophical perspective, no less than from an empirical one, McDowell’s account of practical rationality is not a realistic one. From a philosophical point of view, I will argue that his intellectualist account is not convincing; and if we consider his virtue-ethical ideal of practical rationality in light of the model of human cognition, we also realize that moral behavior is not immune to cognitive biases and does not always flow from robust traits of character like virtues. At the same time, this puts at stake his strong thesis of moral autonomy – the idea that with the ‘onset of reason’ moral beings are no longer determined by ‘first nature’ features.

Philosophy of religion is a field that studies religious issues from a philosophical point of view. Mehmet S. Aydın, who wrote the most widely read work in the field of philosophy of religion in Turkey, entitled Philosophy of Religion, has remarkable studies in this field as a thinker trying to reconcile religion and philosophy. According to Aydın, thoughts that can be described as philosophical ones should first of all have the characteristics of "rationality, comprehensiveness, objectivity and consistency". The main aim of a philosopher of religion is to try to show the integrity of knowledge by reconciling the knowledge revealed by religion and science with a philosophical perspective that includes these basic features. According to Aydın, who was influenced by the philosophy of the process, the relationship between God and the Realm is not static. This relationship, which takes its roots from the Qur'an, is in a creative development that evolves towards innovation. Aydın does not intend to establish religion. Aydın is trying to "establish a pure and universal moral religion with liberal and democratic character by purging religion from its historical interpretations", that is, to understand religion from the Qur'an. Unlike Kant's morality of duty, which he was inspired by, Aydın; He says that religion affects every aspect of life. He draws attention to the need to solve the problems of religious life with modern life. In this context, the subject of the research is about Aydın's understanding of philosophy of religion in general and his contributions to the philosophy of religion. Studies that reveal Aydın's ideas in the field of philosophy of religion are rare. This study is important in terms of contributing to the gap in the literature. In the research; Based on Mehmet S. Aydın's various works and other studies on him, it is aimed to reveal Aydın's philosophy of religion understanding by determining Aydın's ideas about philosophy of religion and the basic principles behind these ideas. The theoretical research design, which is included in the qualitative research method, was preferred. While creating the data, Mehmet S. Aydın's Philosophy of Religion, God-World Relationship, Islamic Philosophy Writings were preferred as the main source and various studies in the literature were also used. Based on these works, the document analysis method was preferred in order to extract the ideas and terminology of the thinker about the philosophy of religion and to classify them in a problem-oriented manner. In conclusion; What the philosopher of religion basically wants to do is to establish a bridge between the field of theology and the field of social sciences, to allow information exchange, as well as to try to show the integrity of knowledge by reconciling the information revealed by religion and science. Aydın, who thinks that religion is related to every aspect of life; He states that "it is not necessary to deny one's own religious and moral values, and their own historical values ​​in order to become this or that intellectual". This will be achieved by learning and adopting religious and cultural values, and most importantly, by putting them into practice. Aydın's main goal was the idea of ​​bringing the "man of the Qur'an", that is, the true pious, back on the stage of life in his individual and social self.

This study aims to analyze the concept of civil society and its relevance to Islamic education from a philosophical perspective. This study uses a qualitative research method based on library research (library research). The main data sources in this research are Al-Qur'an and Hadith, which are interpreted from a philosophical point of view. Meanwhile, the supporting data sources are related books and journals. The results of this study explain that civil society is a group of individuals or groups who carry the vision and mission to achieve the desired life goals, where they influence each other and are bound based on divine law, namely the Al-Qur'an. and Al-Hadith to achieve the goals of life so that the function of education in civil society is as a means to achieve a life that is prosperous, just, prosperous and in accordance with the desired ideals as well as improving, controlling and leading to the right path, developing potential, and shaping character which is in accordance with Islamic teachings. This concept certainly has relevance to Islamic education, where Islamic education is broadly oriented not only to individual development but also to the formation of a civil society.

The first three papers in this issue deal with the physician– patient-relationship. Helge Skirbekk focuses on the microethical issue of trust in the physician–patient-relationship. In most of the medical encounters trust is taken for granted as an implicit phenomenon. Patients often simply assume that they can trust their physician. But the physician– patient-relationship can be made a topic for negotiations if either party finds reason for it. Examples are non-compliance of the patient and doctors who drink too much. Negotiating trust is something one cannot always avoid in order to build an adequate physician–patient-relationship. Andreas Langer et al. focus on the physician–patient-relationship from a somewhat unusual perspective. They attempt to build a bridge between economic theory and medical ethics by applying elements of new institutional economics to ethically relevant dimensions of the physician–patient-relationship. Physicians cannot always give the best possible treatment for their patients because of financial restrictions. Andreas Langer et al. present a new version of the principal-agent-theory in order to analyse this dilemma of medical doctors. Their model of the so-called dual principal-agent relationship can be used to widen the perspective of medical ethics. Individual ethics of the physician–patient-relationship should be complemented with institutional, especially economic, considerations. In their paper, Kjetil Rommetveit and Rouven Porz tell the story of a patient facing the tough decision of whether to be tested for Huntington’s disease or not. They interpret this story from two different philosophical points of view: Aristotle’s perception of Greek tragedy and Karl Jaspers’ notion of boundary situations (Grenzsituationen). The authors argue that philosophical-anthropological positions like these two may be useful for elucidating ethical dilemmas in the clinical setting and for gaining a deeper understanding of these dilemmas. They can be seen as hermeneutic tools for situating clinical dilemmas in a broader cultural and philosophical perspective. The next three papers can be subsumed under the heading of research ethics in a pluralistic society. Lars Oystein Ursin tackles the problem of informed consent in biomedical research. Taking consent for biobank research as an example, he argues that in ethical considerations there is often a confusion of autonomy with liberty interpreted as freedom of choice. In his view we need to make a clear distinction between two ways of understanding the notion of personal autonomy, that is, a proceduralist conception linking autonomy with authenticity and a substantivist conception linking autonomy with control. Informed consent requirements in medical research may bring about a conflict between a participant’s interest in personal autonomy with his or her interest in liberty. Ilhan Ilkilic and Norbert Paul also focus on biomedical research, especially on genome diversity research. An important part of genome diversity research is taking blood and tissue samples from indigenous populations. The authors widen the scope from micro issues such as informed consent and autonomy of probands to a wider approach in which also cultural–philosophical, meta-ethical, and phenomenological aspects are taken into account. They show a few limits of current guidelines used in international genome diversity studies and end up with some conclusions to further develop these international guidelines. From this paper it is not a big step to the following one. Chris Durante’s paper does not deal with clinical medicine or biomedical research, but with bioethics in a pluralistic society. In his view, many theorists fail to take into consideration the W. Dekkers (&) B. Gordijn UMC St Radboud Nijmegen, P.O. Box 9101, Nijmegen, The Netherland e-mail: v.hulsman@iq.umcn.nl

The aim of the article is to reveal the essence of tourism as means of outlook formation of a person. The following research methods were used in the paper: desk research analysis of the literature on the subject, Internet sources. Analysis of the collected material allowed the following conclusions: one of the factors influencing tourism development is the need to verify traditional understanding of tourism. According to the authors, ideological, cultural, humanistic, ethical, cognitive, ets. aspects of tourism should be emphasized. Taking this into account, we consider tourism as a factor influencing general worldview of man. In this regard, tourism gives reasons to perceive it from a philosophical perspective, including epistemological, social, axiological, spiritual and other aspects. When considering the phenomenon of tourism from a philosophical point of view, it should be emphasized that tourism promotes unification, communication and socialization as well as the spread of ethical values in a spirit of mutual understanding and respect.

The problems we have been discussing naturally give rise to two philosophical points of view (or two philosophical temperaments, as I called them in the Introduction). It is with these points of view, and with their consequences for just about every issue in philosophy that I shall be concerned: the question of ‘Brains in a Vat’ would not be of interest, except as a sort of logical paradox, if it were not for the sharp way in which it brings out the difference between these philosophical perspectives. One of these perspectives is the perspective of metaphysical realism. On this perspective, the world consists of some fixed totality of mind-independent objects. There is exactly one true and complete description of ‘the way the world is’. Truth involves some sort of correspondence relation between words or thought-signs and external things and sets of things. I shall call this perspective the externalist perspective, because its favorite point of view is a God's Eye point of view. The perspective I shall defend has no unambiguous name. It is a late arrival in the history of philosophy, and even today it keeps being confused with other points of view of a quite different sort. I shall refer to it as the internalist perspective, because it is characteristic of this view to hold that what objects does the world consist of? is a question that it only makes sense to ask within a theory or description. Many ‘internalist’ philosophers, though not all, hold further that there is more than one ‘true’ theory or description of the world.

Bu çalışma, yapay zekâ alanı teknik bir disiplinken söz konusu disiplinin felsefede nasıl gündeme geldiğini açıklamayı amaçlamaktadır. Çalışmanın temel iddiası, Alan Turing’in taklitçilik oyunu ile beraber yapay zekâ konusunun dil becerisi üzerinden insanın zihinsel kapasitelerini taklit etmeyi amaçlayan bir disipline dönüşmüş olduğudur. Yapay zekâ, akıllı çıktılar veren makineler veya sistemler üretmekle ilgilenen bir bilgisayar bilimi dalıdır. Bu dal; mantık, matematik, mühendislik alanlarıyla etkileşimli olarak doğmuştur. Başlangıcından sonra kat ettiği aşamalar ile farklı disiplinlerle ilişkilenmiştir. Söz konusu disiplinlerden birisi de felsefedir. Bu çalışma, yapay zekâ konusuna çağdaş zihin felsefesi cihetinden bir giriş yapmayı hedeflemektedir. Çalışmada yapay zekâ konusunun felsefe alanında gündeme gelmesi, “Makineler düşünebilir mi?” sorusunu tartışan Alan Turing’in taklitçilik oyunu üzerinden sunulmuştur. Bu bağlamda yapay zekâ tartışmalarının felsefi anlamda başlangıcı, dil becerisi üzerinden makineler ve insanların kıyaslanmasına dayandırabilir. Söz konusu teste birtakım eleştiriler sunulmuştur. Bunlardan biri John. R. Searle’ün Çince odası argümanıdır. Çalışmada bahsi geçen argümanlar sunularak yapay zekâ konusunun felsefi açıdan değerlendirilmesi amaçlanmıştır.

Countries that enter into international agreements have several tools to increase the strength and credibility of their commitments, including the ability to make the agreement a formal agreement rather than soft law, provide for mandatory dispute resolution procedures, and establish monitoring mechanisms. How does international law deal with the problems of large-scale cooperation that countries in the world are facing now and will continue to face in the future? Friedmann argues that international law is moving, and must move, from the law of international coexistence, which governs diplomacy between states, to the law of international cooperation. At the same time, international contract law theorists have not shown much interest in reaching out to legal philosophers for enlightenment. Given these issues, this article aims to examine international law as a viable field of study for philosophy of law in the context of legal pluralism and also to understand the ramifications of its development for the international order. Therefore, it is necessary to discuss international treaty arrangements from the perspective of legal philosophy. This study discusses the direction of drafting contracts whose elements must be fulfilled from a legal, philosophical point of view. One way that could be used is to adopt Dworkin's strategy and incorporate the concept of law into moral arguments, this aligns with the distinction between analytical and normative jurisprudence on domestic law and the way many moral philosophers engage with questions of moral justification. The discussion of the problem in this paper uses normative juridical research methods using a descriptive research approach.

The tragicomedy of modern theoretical biology