25 Years of Transformations of Higher Education Systems in Post-Soviet Countries

In the context of unfolding global processes of the post-industrialization, informatization and the growth of knowledge components of economic development, the higher education system as an element of the economic and cultural compound of the countries and states acts as a moderating medium between all socio-economic subsystems of modern society. With the impact of global processes, the national higher education system assesses and neutralizes global risks, where it is possible, and creates sustainable trends of their effective adaptation. Regardless of the devotion level of the regional educational system and regardless of the priorities of the state educational system, it is impossible to exclude diffusion of the trends, tendencies and the global technologies. That is why, for the higher education systems of countries, the transformation of higher education systems in these conditions involves the adoption of a special model of such transformation – converged, which allows to identify the most dynamic, effective and relevant processes of change and to detect on this basis the main objectives of transformation and mechanisms for its implementation. With the expansion of information and technological processes in the society and in the aspect of the increasing restrictions of social mobility, the higher education takes on new meanings and new significance. In a globalized environment, the transformation of the autonomous higher education systems implicates the adoption of the specific model of transformation – the converged one. From these perspectives, the appreciation of the impact of global trends and tendencies to the transformation of stable patterns and links between the higher education economy seems to be a promising subject of research.

The development of higher education system of Azerbaijan reflects the country’s historical transformations. The system started developing with the foundation of the first higher education institution before the establishment of the Soviet Union, expanded during the Soviets and grew into current systems of 52 institutions since independence. Institutions changed in number and nature with the entrance of private universities into the higher education market and increase in number of state universities. Three-cycle higher education was introduced and institutions utilising Western university practices of management and teaching emerged. Despite the changes, the system still reflects much of the Soviet period. The typology of higher education institutions (HEIs) in Azerbaijan was built based on their educational, research, internationalisation activities and financial capacity. Institutions were classified as leading state and private higher education institutions, which excel in research and rank high in country ranking lists. The second group of institutions are known for good quality education but do not give a heavy weight on research. The last type of higher education institutions serve the purpose of preparing teachers and other public sector employees.

The higher education (HE) system in Belarus has undergone important changes since the beginning of the 1990s under the pressure of the different internal and external factors (demographic, political, socio-economic changes, international cooperation, etc.). The horizontal system differentiation increased with the creation of the new private and public higher education institutions (HEIs) and changes in the functioning of the former Soviet HEIs. Belarusian HE experienced an important and fast massification and many of HEIs used it as opportunity to step out from the narrow specialisation imposed during the Soviet period. Nevertheless, HEIs diversified their curricula principally in response to social demand that was not closely connected to existing transforming economy’s needs. The vertical system differentiation inherited from the Soviet period was slightly changed and strengthened especially at the beginning of 2010 as a result of government policies and of the introduction of national, regional and international rankings. As a result, the leading state HEIs at the beginning of 1990 reinforced their position and the new private or recently created public HEIs play a marginal role in the national HE system. The organisational interrelationship between HEIs has also changed from the logic of complementarity under the Soviet period to the logic of the competition for the students and for the resources. As the Belarusian HE system has attended the limits of its expansion at the end of 2000, in the nearest future the tendency of its reduction will reinforce and the decreasing number of national students will inevitably impact the number of the HEIs and increase the competition between remaining HEIs. This chapter analyses the system of HE inherited from the Soviet period and explores the main factors influencing the transformations in the Belarusian HE landscape during more than 20 years. It also presents the typology of existing Belarusian HEIs and draws some prospects for further evolution of the national higher education system.

Higher education in Tajikistan has undergone substantial changes over the past 25 years as a result of both its internal crises and those social and economic transition challenges seen throughout the Newly Independent States (NIS). HEIs in the country have also shown eagerness to change and grow as they move toward world education space. In this chapter, we examine the evolution of the Tajik system of higher education from the Soviet time through independence (1991–2015) in terms of growth, emerging landscape and diversification, and key policy developments and issues. We analyze these changes in the context of relevant economic, social and political factors, and rely on a comparative analysis in understanding the commonalities and differences in higher educational landscapes between Tajikistan and others in the NIS. Institutional diversity has occurred in the country along several dimensions. Among these is a geometric expansion of the number of HEIs: Those transformed from preexisting Soviet institutes as well as the establishment of many new ones. This has been fueled partly by the mass creation of new programs that reflect the needs of an emerging knowledge-based economy but also the result of parental craving for higher education for their children—regardless of market demands. Specific features of the massification of higher education in Tajikistan are further explained by internationalization according to the Bologna Process and other globalization agendas; the establishment of international HEIs under bilateral government agreements (with Russia), and significantly increasing HEI programs and enrolments in far-flung regions of the country—especially in programs related to industry and technology. Our analyses are based on a variety of official statistical sources; educational laws, institutional documents and reports published by international organizations; accounts from the English-language press; and open-ended interviews conducted by the authors in Tajikistan between 2011 and 2014.

This article pursues the objective of promoting a superior understanding of imminent need in the transformation of higher education system in Armenia, based on the interests and needs of internal and external stakeholders (e.g., state, society, students, faculty, board of trustees, parents, taxpayers, and other constituencies) fit into that broader picture. The arguments herein may also promote a more holistic picture of the complexity of higher education landscape and the interplay between the economy and society. This article provides a conceptual foundation to further ponder on whether higher education reforms in Armenia for the past two decades have been targeted towards the creation of internationally competitive higher education system or were continuous mere modifications of different global implications.The conceptual framework has been devised from the outputs of rigorous document analysis, literature review, and deep interviews on the topic of the impact of higher education reforms in the Republic of Armenia. A series of in-depth interviews were conducted with a wide range of state education policy makers, university senior managers, institutional accreditation specialists, quality assurance representatives, as well as various constituencies and stakeholder groups. Since regaining independence in 1991 until joining the Bologna Process in 2005, Armenia ideologically distanced itself from global educational reforms and did not make commitment to the indoctrination of educational reforms. This ideologically might match up with the assertion that educational reforms are as a ‘placebo,’ that is, symbolic actions designed to indicate governmental awareness of problems and sympathetic intentions, rather than serious efforts and stringent policies to achieve social cohesion and become competitive internationally. However, with the exposure to the European Higher Education Area (EHEA) integration in 2005 and onwards, Armenia has systematically been financed for the creation of a functional and competitive education system, has formulated and implemented the strategy of “revitalizing the country through science and education” (RA Government Program 2008), and has put the development of education as a strategic priority in the globalization drive.

The paper examines how and to what extent the Soviet higher education system transformed after the collapse of theussr. It offers a research-based analysis of the external and internal factors of transformation in six post-Soviet countries: three “Slavic” states (Belarus, Russia, Ukraine), and three Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania). The paper characterizes a bounded number of types of organizations of higher education in each country. Using the set-theoretic multi-value qualitative comparative analysis (mvQCA), the authors identify several causal chains that led to the transformation of the Soviet comprehensive university into a ‘post-Soviet research university’ or ‘general education organization’. This paper compares the drivers of organizational diversity in Soviet and post-Soviet education, and traces country-specific features of the organizational transformation of universities in six post-Soviet countries.

У статті здійснено науково-теоретичний аналіз підходів та обґрунтування методологічного концепту побудови та функціонування системи якості вищої фармацевтичної освіти.

The article analyzes the transformation of higher education system in Turkmenistan. The aim of the research is to evaluate the prospects of Russian higher education export to Turkmenistan taking into account the peculiarities of Turkmen higher education system and the main trends affecting it. The role of the state and the influence of global trends on Turkmen higher education system in 1991 - 2020 are estimated based on the coordination model and the concept of higher education internationalization. Since Turkmenistan as well as many other countries aims at increasing its universities’ popularity in the world, the article also considers the degree of internal and external higher education internationalization. Taking into consideration the peculiarities of the national economy of Turkmenistan, the political system, and the power balance in Central Asia, the author seeks to forecast the development of Turkmen higher education system. The article concludes that there is a significant potential for increasing the export of Russian higher education services to Turkmenistan. However, Russian universities need to explore the peculiarities of the country and elaborate suitable methods of work with Turkmen school-leavers.

The evolution of Georgian higher education system in recent decades almost perfectly mirrors the political and socio-economic developments in the country. Having emerged from the uniform Soviet system, it has been undergoing radical changes and has transformed into a diverse institutional setup, which, for all its similarities with various higher education systems existing in other countries, cannot be categorised as a typical representative of one.At the risk of oversimplification, we can divide the process of transformation of Georgian higher education in post-soviet period into three stages corresponding to the phases of political and socioeconomic transformations of the country. Immediately after gaining independence, when country sunk into the chaos of civil war, ethnic conflicts and economic crisis, higher education changed largely by inertia and chaotically, without much direction or a uniform vision. Swift transition to market economy was reflected through massive privatisation of costs in higher education and consequent diversification of the form of institutional ownership into public and private. In the following period after 1994, was settling down after the earlier turmoil. The higher education system continued to develop slowly and largely independently from the central governmental guidance. As higher education detached itself from the alliance with the Soviet economy and accordingly with various line ministries, many institutions changed their narrow profiles and started offering a wider range of specialisations thus responding to the demands of the market economy.Starting in 2004, following the Rose Revolution, the changes were more centralised, planned and fitted with the greater vision of economic liberalism of the government team. Joining the Bologna process and applying the principles of market economy to the governance of higher education happened simultaneously. The result was integration of research at universities and a seemingly ‘meritocratic’ way of admitting students and provision of funds, which ultimately define the prestige of universities.

COVID-19 is a blessing for the higher education industry in developing nations since it has accelerated the digitization of higher education. Education is essential to transforming people into human capital. The COVID-19 restrictions on physically entering educational institutions gave boost to the biggest educational disaster in the world. The objective of this study is to investigate the best practices employed by the Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) in Sri Lanka to enhance university academic role both amid and beyond the pandemic. The technique of nonprobability purposive sampling was employed, and the results were then analyzed thematically. Best practices in academic research and knowledge dissemination fields, and teaching have been recognized by the study from the viewpoint of the HEIs. Beyond the pandemic, virtual laboratories, concurrent delivery, and hybrid deliveries are still in use, while academic research and knowledge dissemination are being digitalized and exposed to a global audience. The shift from traditional classrooms to the distance learning environment in developing nations has accelerated the process of meeting the sustainable development objective of high-quality education by 2030. As a result, policymakers in these nations can emphasize digitally enabling the higher education sector. Keywords: COVID-19, Higher Education Sector and Institutional Best Practices

The mass participation of higher education (HE) has been growing at an unprecedented speed since the late 20th century, and now more than one-third of people aged 25 to 65 years old have attained at least one post-secondary degree (OECD, 2019). Leading by the increasing access and diversity of participation, the ongoing transformation of higher education systems (HES) shows the dynamism of HE. It is not only majorly powered by the economic efficiency of HEIs but also the students’ goals of socioeconomic improvement. Many institutions, however, take a sidestep when it comes to equal access. Quality of HE begins to raise issues when the number of students becomes overwhelming. Societal and financial factors continue to pervade the institutions as HE access broadens. To comprehend the difficulties of these institutions is to propose a better way to change the current HES. This paper is based on a number of analyses, reports and surveys to explore the process of transforming from elite education to online education with historical timelines. The paper addressed the influence of diversified accessibility on HE is further discussed, revealing many issues that hinder the current progress of transformation. Scrutinizing the economic analogy for HE also uncovers problems in the current HES. Then, the paper proposes several advantages for OHE and how it will shift the current HES.

В статье рассматривается сравнительный анализ моделей высшего образования в странах Европы и Азии с учетом их исторических корней и современных тенденций. Целью исследования является выявление особенностей и различий в системах высшего образования в данных регионах, а также определение факторов, влияющих на их развитие. В работе использовались методы сравнительного анализа, исторического обзора и статистической обработки данных. Материалами для исследования послужили научные публикации, статистические отчеты международных организаций и официальные документы стран Европы и Азии в сфере высшего образования. Результаты исследования показали, что системы высшего образования в Европе и Азии имеют значительные различия, обусловленные историческими, культурными и социально-экономическими факторами. Европейская модель характеризуется более длительной историей развития, ориентацией на либеральные ценности и индивидуальный подход к обучению. Азиатская модель, в свою очередь, отличается прагматичностью, коллективизмом и строгой иерархией в академической среде. Несмотря на различия, в последние десятилетия наблюдается тенденция к интернационализации и сближению систем высшего образования в обоих регионах. Это выражается в росте академической мобильности, внедрении международных образовательных стандартов и развитии совместных образовательных программ. Так, по данным ЮНЕСКО, количество студентов, обучающихся за рубежом, выросло с 2 млн в 2000 году до 5,3 млн в 2019 году, причем значительную долю составляют студенты из азиатских стран, обучающиеся в европейских университетах. Несмотря на существенные различия в моделях высшего образования Европы и Азии, современные тенденции глобализации и интернационализации способствуют их постепенному сближению и взаимообогащению. Дальнейшие исследования в этой области могут быть направлены на более детальное изучение факторов, влияющих на трансформацию систем высшего образования, а также на разработку рекомендаций по их гармонизации и повышению эффективности. The article considers a comparative analysis of higher education models in Europe and Asia, taking into account their historical roots and current trends. The purpose of the study is to identify the features and differences in higher education systems in these regions, as well as to identify the factors influencing their development. The methods of comparative analysis, historical review and statistical data processing were used in the work. The materials for the study were scientific publications, statistical reports of international organizations and official documents of European and Asian countries in the field of higher education. The results of the study showed that the higher education systems in Europe and Asia have significant differences due to historical, cultural and socio-economic factors. The European model is characterized by a longer history of development, a focus on liberal values and an individual approach to learning. The Asian model, in turn, is characterized by pragmatism, collectivism and strict hierarchy in the academic environment. Despite the differences, in recent decades there has been a trend towards internationalization and convergence of higher education systems in both regions. This is reflected in the growth of academic mobility, the introduction of international educational standards and the development of joint educational programs. Thus, according to UNESCO, the number of students studying abroad increased from 2 million in 2000 to 5.3 million in 2019, with a significant proportion of students from Asian countries studying at European universities. Despite the significant differences in the models of higher education in Europe and Asia, the current trends of globalization and internationalization contribute to their gradual convergence and mutual enrichment. Further research in this area may be aimed at a more detailed study of the factors influencing the transformation of higher education systems, as well as the development of recommendations for their harmonization and efficiency improvement.

The world is transforming quickly, with it, the requirement for universal access to top-notch higher education. The present shift toward higher quality is the most effective way of developing and maximizing our country's vast talent pool. The new National Education Policy is being created to address the challenges of making every higher education institution a reputable and best institution for higher education. It is in shambles, and there is a lack of emphasis on cognitive skill development and learning outcomes. Higher education helps to shape a nation that is enlightened, socially conscious, ethical, knowledgeable, and skilled in devising and implementing effective solutions to its problems. The proposed reforms in India's Higher Education System, regulatory structure, and teaching pedagogy are analysed in this paper. The expenditures of various countries on education, including SAARC and BRICS, were also compared to their respective GDPs.

The history of Soviet higher education was closely intertwined with the broader histories of Soviet-era general education, with science policies and research institutions, and with the various models of political economy that were embraced and then altered between 1917 and the collapse of the U.S.S.R. in 1991. Such close bureaucratic control and tight policy coordination were inherent in the state socialist higher education system that allowed no private institutions or alternative models to function (Chanbarisov, 1988), and was arguably the source of Soviet higher education's greatest strengths as well as the cause of its greatest weaknesses. State support and massive public investment meant that Soviet higher education witnessed some of the most rapid and truly impressive quantitative and institutional growth in the world (Yelyutin, 1959). In other words, Russian and then Soviet higher education grew from its modest domestic influence and marginal global status in the early 1900s to become one of the largest and most comprehensive systems of higher education and research in the postwar era.

When asked what she thought was the main achievement of 25 Years of Transformations of Higher Education Systems in Post-Soviet Countries: Reform and Continuity, a huge compendium comprising two int...