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The concentration of ochratoxin A (OTA) in 120 commercial pepper (84 pre-packed and 36 bulk samples), which consist of local and imported white and black pepper in powder and seed form in Malaysia were determined. The objective of the study was to investigate and compare OTA concentration in black pepper and white pepper being commercialized in Malaysia. Determination method was based on HPLC with fluorescence detection coupled with immunoaffinity column clean-up step. Mobile phase consisted of acetonitrile-water-acetic acid (49.5:49.5:1.0, v/v/v), and flow rate was 1 ml/min. The LOD was 0.02 ng/g, and the average recovery values of OTA ranged from 79.5 to 92.0% in black pepper and 81.2-90.3% in white pepper. A total of 57 samples (47.5%) were contaminated with OTA ranging from 0.15 to 13.58 ng/g. The results showed that there was a significant difference between type of pepper and brands. OTA concentration in black pepper was significantly higher than white pepper (p < 0.05). The highest concentration of ochratoxin, 13.58 ng/g, was detected in a sample of black pepper seed followed by 12.64 ng/g in a sample of black pepper powder, both were bulk samples purchased from open market.

As a medicinal and edible herb, Piper nigrum L. is abundant in volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and its essential oil has antibacterial properties. Notably, the aromatic profiles of black pepper (BP) and white pepper (WP) are markedly distinct. Consequently, it is essential to comprehensively characterize the VOCs of BP and WP, and analyze the differences in their VOCs and antibacterial efficacy. This study analyzed the VOCs of BP and WP using headspace gas chromatography-ion mobility spectrometry (HS-GC-IMS) and headspace solid-phase microextraction-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (HS-SPME-GC-MS). The fingerprint of HS-GC-IMS was established. Random forest analysis, orthogonal partial least squares discriminant analysis and heatmap were used to analyze differences in BP and WP. Furthermore, the antibacterial efficacy of volatile oils derived from BP and WP was assessed using the antibacterial zone diameter method. A total of 108 and 123 VOCs were identified by HS-GC-IMS and HS-SPME-GC-MS, respectively. The results of multivariate statistical analysis showed that the VOCs of BP and WP are significantly different. In contrast, WP has a milder smell than BP, while BP has a more pungent odor. Eight differential markers were selected. Both BP and WP had inhibitory effects on Staphylococcus aureus and Candida albicans. This study helps to decipher the flavor differences between BP and WP, and provides a material basis for their quality control and pharmacodynamics. It is beneficial to enhance its utilization within the domains of nutrition and traditional Chinese medicine.

Green and solvent-free simultaneous ultrasonic-microwave assisted extraction of essential oil from white and black peppers

Capsaicin has general impressive health benefits such as anticancer, stimulates digestion and enables weight loss. The aim of this study is to extract capsaicin from black pepper and white pepper by using polar (Ethanol) and nonpolar (Acetone) solvents and to maximize the percentage yield of capsaicin. The effect of temperature and solid to solvent ratioon percentage yield is investigated for extraction of capsaicin from black pepper and white pepper. The percentage yield of capsaicin is higher for acetone than ethanol for both black and white pepper at the temperature and solid to solvent ratio of 50oC and 1:10, respectively. Also, the percentageyield of capsaicin is higher for ethanol than acetone for both black and white pepper at the temperature and solid to solvent ratio of 70oC and 1:10, respectively. Hence, black and white pepper could be the potential substrates for the extraction of capsaicin.

Spices are considered as a valuable food material owing not only to their special aroma, but also a myriad of nutritional and health benefits. Black pepper (Piper nigrum L.; Piperaceae) is known as the “king of spices”, being commonly used worldwide in its two forms: black and processed white pepper. The main goal of this study was to perform multi-targeted comparative metabolite profiling and fingerprinting approaches targeting primary and secondary metabolites using gas chromatography mass-spectrometry (GC-MS) post-silylation and ultra-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC-MS/MS) coupled to multivariate analyses and molecular networking. A total of 51 metabolites were annotated using GC-MS belonging to fatty acids/esters (9), alkaloids/nitrogenous (6), sugars (3), sugar alcohols (5), organic acids (15), alcohols (4), and aliphatic hydrocarbons (6) in addition to phenols (3). Fatty acids/esters were enriched in black and white pepper at ca. 23.4 mg g−1. Moreover, piperine was detected at higher levels in white pepper at 5.9 mg g−1 compared to 3.4 mg g−1 in black pepper. A total of 71 metabolites were annotated using UPLC-MS/MS, with piperamides as the most abundant class, of which 6 are first time to be detected in P. nigrum fruit “types A, E and O”. In addition, 7 fatty acids were recoded along 4 flavonoids exhibiting novel glycosidic linkage of kaempferol and apigenin. Furthermore, 5 hydroxycinnamic acids have been detected; some were identified for the first time from P. nigrum fruit. Clusters of fatty acids, flavonoids and phenylamides were detected by negative mode GNPS molecular networking, whereas clusters representing the majority of alkaloids were detected in positive mode. Assay of total phenolics and flavonoids revealed higher levels in black compared to white pepper, with values of 45.6 and 37.5 mg GAE per g for total phenolics and 9.4 & 8.5 mg RE per g for flavonoids, respectively. Assessment of antioxidant capacity using DPPH, ABTS scavenging assays, and FRAP assay revealed moderate effects at 49.79, 20.6, and 104.6 (black pepper), 29.0, 11.5, and 77.5 mg TE per g (white pepper), respectively. Moreover, black and white pepper extracts inhibited α-glucosidase enzyme with an IC50 of 0.77 and 0.62 mg mL−1, compared with acarbose.

Fungi in spices and mycotoxigenic potential of some Aspergilli isolated

The antiradical properties of essential oils and extracts from coriander seeds Coriandrum sativum L., cardamom fruits Elettaria cardamomum L., fruits of white and black pepper Piper nigrum L., and pods of red cayenne and green chili pepper Capsicum frutescens L. were studied in model reactions with the stable free 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical. The essential oils consisted of monoand sesquiterpene hydrocarbons, alcohols, oxides and esters as the main components. Spice extracts contained flavonoids, diand triterpenoids, phenolic acids, alkaloids and carotenoids. The values of antiradical efficiency were low and decreased in the following order: black pepper extract > cayenne pepper extract > cardamom essential oil > chili pepper extract > cardamom extract > white pepper extract > coriander extract > black pepper essential oil > white pepper essential oil > coriander essential oil.

Pepper is a major spice of commerce widely used both for its flavoring properties and as a traditional medicine in the orient. Pepper berries are commercially available in three main forms, namely, green pepper (dried unripe fruit), black pepper (cooked and dried unripe fruit), and white pepper (derived from ripe fruit seeds). Black pepper is the major spice of commerce and is one of the most common spices used in cuisines all over the world. Quality of pepper berries is decided both by their microbial status and the chemical parameters such as the content of essential oil, oleoresin, and piperine content. Various postharvest processing and preservation methods can have impact on the aforementioned parameters, thereby affecting the final quality of the product. Chemistry of black pepper has been extensively investigated. The characteristic aroma of the spice is mainly due to the inherent essential oils constituted mainly of terpenes along with other minor volatile constituents. Its spiciness/pungency has been shown to be due to the chemical compound piperine, an alkaloid. Black pepper is also rich in glycosides of phenolic acids and flavonol glycosides. Phenolic compounds, namely, 3,4-dihydroxy-phenyl ethanol glucoside and 3,4-dihydroxy-6-(N-ethyl amino) benzamide, have been identified in unripe green pepper berries and shown to contribute to the color of black pepper berries. Black pepper has been extensively used in traditional indigenous Asian system of medicine such as Ayurveda. The reported health benefits of black pepper include relieving sinus, asthma, and nasal congestion, reducing the risk of cancer, heart, and liver ailment and aiding in weight loss. It also aids in improving digestion, enhances bioavailability of food nutrients, improves cognitive functions, and reduces gastric mucosal damage and peptic ulcers due to its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. While extensive studies have demonstrated the medicinal properties of black pepper, there is a need to have more focused studies on other pepper products, particularly green pepper. This is due to the fact that some of the newer phenolic compounds identified in green pepper and absent in black and white pepper may have novel pharmaceutical activities not reported so far. Thus, from a nutraceutical perspective besides black pepper, green pepper can also play a major role in prevention of diseases. This chapter focuses on the chemistry of black and green pepper with special emphasis on green pepper berries. Various quality parameters that can have an impact on the final acceptability of pepper products of commerce, effect of various postharvest processing methods, and quality control measures adopted will be discussed. The pharmaceutical properties of different pepper products will be discussed with a focus on the biological activities of the newer phenolic compounds identified in green pepper. Finally, the possible development of novel nutraceutical products from different pepper products for health promotion will be deliberated.

Aspergillus parasiticus Speare NRRL 2999 growth and aflatoxin production in black and white pepper and the penetration of the fungus in black pepper corn over various incubation periods were studied. Also, the effects of piperine and pepper oil on growth and aflatoxin production were studied. Under laboratory conditions, black and white pepper supported aflatoxin production (62.5 and 44 ppb (ng/g), respectively) over 30 days of incubation. Fungal growth measured in terms of chitin was considerably less in white pepper than in black pepper. A histological study of black pepper corn showed the fungus penetrating up to the inner mesocarp and establishing itself in the middle mesocarp. Piperine and pepper oil were found to inhibit fungal growth and toxin production in a dose-dependent manner. Thus, both black and white pepper could be considered as poor substrates for fungal growth and aflatoxin production.

A cool comparison of black and white pepper grades

Piperine was discovered in 1819 by Hans Christian, who isolated it from the fruits of Piper nigrum, the source plant of both the black and white pepper grains [1]. Fluckiger and Hanbury found piperine in Piper longum and Piper officinarum Piperine, along with its isomer chavicine, is the alkaloid[1b] responsible for the pungency of black pepper and long pepper [2]. Piperine is extracted from black pepper using dichloromethane [3]. Aqueous hydrotropes can be used in the extraction to result in high yield and selectivity [4]. The amount of piperine varies from 1-2% in long pepper, to 5-10% in commercial white and black peppers [5]. Further, it may be prepared by treating the solvent-free residue from an alcoholic extract of black pepper, with a solution of potassium hydroxide to remove resin (said to contain chavicine, an isomer of piperine) and solution of the washed, insoluble residue in warm alcohol, from which the alkaloid crystallises on cooling [6]. It has been used in some forms of traditional medicine. Piperine, a major alkaloid in black pepper is one of the most gifted bioenhancers till date. Additional methods used for its isolation suffer disadvantages such as poor extraction efficiency, tedious and pricey isolation methodology, piperine photode gradation, etc. Hence a simple, rapid and well-organized method has been developed for the extraction of piperine from the fruits of Piper nigrum. The methods under study involve extraction of piperine with various solvents such as ethanol, propionic acid and dichloromethane. Then isolation and purification were followed by separate classical methods for respective extracts. Compared to other two methods, the novel method using propionic acid proved to be valuable in isolating piperine with higher yield and in higher purity. Hence extract derived using propionic acid was further subjected to alkali wash and passing out through small silicagel bed. Then identification of the compound was confirmed by various analytical methods TLC, melting point, UV-visible spectrophotometer, FT-IR, HPLC and compared it with authentic piperine which resulted into better pure piperine crystals as that of authentic piperine.

&lt;p&gt;Indonesia is one of the major pepper (Piper nigrum L.) producer countries in the world. The main pepper products are distinguished into black and white pepper. Each region has a tradition to produce each of the products and influencing cultivation practices and cost structure. This research was aimed to analyze the cost of productions of black and white pepper and their relative competitiveness to the pepper price at the farm level with conventional and improved cultivation practices. The survey methods were used to obtain the primary data from respondents selected with the snowball sampling method. Lampung and Bangka Belitung Islands were chosen to represent the black and white peppers of smallholders, respectively. The result showed that the farms with conventional cultivation practices did not have sustainable relative competitiveness, indicating higher production costs than the lowest prices received in the long term. On the other hand, relative competitiveness was relatively better in farms that implemented improved cultivation practices. Therefore, to achieve sustainable relative competitiveness, pepper farms should apply improved cultivation practices. The relative competitiveness of white pepper was better than black pepper because the productivity of white pepper was higher even though the production cost was also a little bit higher than black pepper.&lt;/p&gt;

A wide range of field and storage fungi were isolated from black pepper, white pepper and Brazil nut kernels from Amazonia. A total of 42 species were isolated from both peppers. Aspergillus flavus and A. niger were isolated more frequently from black than from white pepper. Other potential mycotoxigenic species isolated included: A. ochraceus, A. tamarii, A. versicolor, Emericella nidulans and Chaetomium globosum, Penicillium brevicompactum, P. citrinum, P. islandicum and P. glabrum. Species isolated from pepper for the first time were Acrogenospora sphaerocephala, Cylindrocarpon lichenicola, Lacellinopsis sacchari, Microascus cinereus, Petriella setifera and Sporormiella minima. Seventeen species were isolated from Brazil nut kernels. A. flavus was the dominant species followed by A. niger. P. citrinum and P. glabrum were the only penicillia isolated. Species isolated for the first time included Acremonium curvulum, Cunninghamella elegans, Exophiala sp., Fusarium oxysporum, Pseudoallescheria boydii, Rhizopus oryzae, Scopulariopsis sp., Thielavia terricola and Trichoderma citrinoviride. Considerably more metabolites were detected from black than white pepper in qualitative analyses. Chaetocin, penitrem A, and xanthocillin were identified only from black pepper, and tenuazonic acid was identified from both black and white pepper. Aflatoxin G2, chaetoglobosin C, and spinulosin were identified from poor quality brazil nuts. Aflatoxin B1 and B2 were also only detected in poor quality brazil nuts at concentrations of 27.1 micrograms kg-1 and 2.1 micrograms kg-1 respectively (total 29.2 micrograms kg-1).

Pepper is a type of spice plant in Indonesia that used for cooking spices. One of the advantages of this spice is that it has a spicy taste and distinctive scent caused by piperine and essential oils contained in pepper seeds. This research was carried out from June 2018 to October 2019, using the main raw material for the Natar 1 variety of pepper. The pepper seed was processed into black pepper and white pepper, and the yield was calculated. Then observed levels of piperine and essential oils of black pepper and white pepper prior to and a year after storage. The data obtained were processed in a qualitative descriptive manner. The results showed that after 12 months of storage, there was a decrease in piperine content of 9.91% and a decrease in essential oil content of 21.77%; while white pepper decreased piperine content by 19.45% and essential oil content decreased by 56.91%. Based on the results of this study, good storage technology is needed to support the sustainability of the availability of black pepper and white pepper in particular, as well as pepper farming in general.

Piper nigrum L. is a widely used spice because of its flavour and health effects. It is prepared as black and white pepper, according to the harvest time and inclusion of the outer skin. Pepper pericarp is usually considered waste when making white pepper. In this study, bioactive and flavour compounds and minerals in the pericarp of black pepper were determined to identify its applications. The pericarp contained total phenol, total flavonoid and piperine contents of 1421.95 ± 22.35 mg GAE/100 g, 983.82 ± 8.19 mg CE/100 g and 2352.19 ± 68.88 mg/100 g, respectively. There were higher levels of total phenols and total flavonoids in the pericarp compared with black pepper and white pepper. Piperine content was lower in the pericarp than in black pepper. The principal monoterpene compounds in the pericarp were α-pinene (9.2%), 2-β-pinene (14.3%), δ-3-carene (21.5%) and dl-limonene (18.8%), and the primary sesquiterpenes were α-copaene (5.1%) and caryophyllene (17.2%). The higher percentages of flavour compounds found in the pericarp would impart a more potent odour, and the pericarp exhibited higher minor and tiny differences based on electronic nose analysis. It had more minerals than black pepper and peeled black pepper.