宋代筆記與《江談抄》的體裁－說話與筆記的界限

The relationships between dao 道 and wen 文 (or the Way and literary form) was one of the key issues during the development history of Tang and Song's classical prose. Zhu Xi 朱熹 corrected the theoretical flaws of Northern Song's Confucian moralists with the idea that ”literariness originates from the Way.” He thus established a writing theory comparable to those proposed by literary giants of the past. Yet, how is this theory realized in his own writing? This is the main concern of this article. Ji 記 is one of the most popular Song prose genres. Most classical prose writers in Northern Song tried their best to create and invent new writing ideas for ji, making this genre of prose one of the richest of those practiced in the Song dynasty. However, in terms of quantity, Zhu Xi wrote the most ji in the Song dynasty. This is interesting when the literary inclination of the ji genre is taken into consideration. Discussion is presented based on five categories of ji. Through the comparison of content differences between Zhu Xi's and those written during Northern Song, this article attempts to define the characteristics of Zhu Xi's ji and identify how he implemented his theory in practical writing.

The prose genre zhuan 傳 (biography) originated in historical texts, and initially took the recording of historical fact as a baseline writing principle. However, the close tie between zhuan and history began to loosen during the Tang and Song dynasties, when fictional elements became one of the genres most important features. The emergence of this trend is exemplified by Su Shi's ”Biography of Fangshanzi,” a half-fictional biography widely regarded as one of the most famous and outstanding zhuan works ofthe time. Using modem narrative theories as an important analytic device, this paper aims to reinterpret Su's ”Biography of Fangshanzi” within the context of the classical Chinese writing tradition of historical prose. In opposition to previous research, I claim that the content of the biography is not totally based on truth. I try to identify its lyrical character and analyze the narrative strategies Su used in an effort to see how the essay, which roams across the borders of history and prose, as well as fact and fiction, could serve as a metaphor of the author's life. Through this discussion, I re-examine the tradition of Chinese narrative literature, and explain why it is necessary to include guwen (古文) within it. Moreover, I show how an expressive zhuan like the ”Biography of Fangshanzi” is interrelated with lyrical poetry. By elucidating this interrelationship, I hope to provide a basis for further investigation of the connection between the narrative and lyrical traditions in Chinese literature.

One of the development features of the academic research in the Qing Dynasty is the emergence of prospective of academic history. Confucians in the Qing Dynasty held great ambition to distinguish boundary between disciplines and carefully analyze boundary and difference among various kinds of knowledge of Classics, Shi, Zi and Wen through this perspective. So, this paper will discuss, under this perspective, the classification of distinguishing the academic chapter and examining the origin and branch Ruan Yuan Circle did against the literature in 18th century of the middle of the Qing Dynasty which leaded it to free from constraint of writing being for conveying the truth and promoted literature to stand alone to become a potential school of pure literature emerged in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic. In this paper it holds the opinion that behind the dispute of parallel prose and prose in the Qing Dynasty it is not completely the result of debate between Sinology and Song Learning but Qing Confucians should hold a bigger target. Therefore, the writer basically puts in order literature views from the Tang Dynasty, Song Dynasty to the middle of the Qing Dynasty and gets the results that the theory of writing being for conveying the truth was deep in scholars’ mind, whether the “truth” refers to social function of music education or formal meaning of heavenly principles and natural law. In short, writing should primarily link truth, translate truth and convey truth, and especially through the way of compiling collection it further commit and promote the effect of spreading this theory. Facing thousand-year long obstacles, scholars of Ruan Yuan Circle struggled to hold the opinion that the works in the Six Dynasties should be the very literature, and even collected and explored school vein of literature from Wenyanzhuan of Confucius to The Four Books of the Min Dynasty with the purpose that made literature to be an independent discipline different from Neo-Confucianism, study of Chinese Classics, Historical Science and Confucianism. As a result, they took theory of verse and prose and Zhao Min Selected Works as their theoretical basis and first criticized the works of eight great writers, praised highly by the later generations, in the Tang Dynasty and Song Dynasty in thought that the content of these works were all in the fields of the Classics, History and Confucianism but not writings. They, therefore, through discrimination and propagation of theory, stated that literature should have features of antithesis and rhyme on form and content and should express one’s feeling by using rhetoric but not be restricted to outmoded conventions and old laws. Secondly, they showed their spirit of being practical and realistic through the way of worshipping scholars of the six dynasties and declared that their concept of literature didn’t words without basis. The Preface of the Selected Works held the principle that it would not select anything but literature writing, and that’s why it was thought highly by Ruan Yuan Circle. Under the study style of character being the first in the Qing Dynasty, Ruan Yuan was the first putting forward the view of ancient Chinese fiction sharing the same origin and school with verse and prose which resulted that the research to Selected Works was badly influenced and it embodied in analysis to Annotation of Li Shan and even thought on the same level of Xv Xuan, Xv Kai and Cao Xian, Li Shan. Therefore, scholars in the Qing Dynasty thereby opened another scholastic trend of science of name and object system, car and clothes in palace, and grass, wood, bird and beast in the Selected Works. The scholars in Ruan Yuan Circle not only introspected ancient Chinese and the Eight Great Men of Letters of the Tang and Song Dynasties, but also promoted the research of Dragon-carving and the Literary Mind. Besides, the emergence of rudiment of viewpoint of literature history was inherited and praised by literary historians in the early Republic. This achievement was formed on the basis of the prospective of literary history. Its influence involved until Zhang Taiyan, Liu Shipei and Huang Kan in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic who all inherited and proposed the theories that the basic lesson was that writing should be form with rhetoric and that the ancient writers were all Confucians in the Min Dynasty. On the other hand, they didn’t accept completely but did some change and even criticized Ruan Yuan in some place. Now, it went into the nest phase of complicated and versatile literary transformation.

The rise of southern literati東南士人 in the middle of the New Song Dynasty (960-1127) was an eminent phenomenon in the Chinese history. On one hand, this phenomenon symbolized the shift of Chinese cultural centre from north to south; on the other hand, the phenomenon was intimately related to the emergence of Southeast regions as a core of Chinese cultural lives in the Late Imperial China. However, the background of this important phenomenon had still not been clarified comprehensively and systematically, which became the main subject for this thesis aiming to deal with. This thesis chooses the Southeastern (including Huainan淮南, Jiangnan江南, Jiangxi江西, Zhejiang浙江amd Fujian福建) literati whose reputations were widely respected by republic of letters of the early Song Dynasty, as the principle subject of this research. Meanwhile, since many Southeastern literati of the early Song came from Sothern Tang南唐 (937-974), the biggest southern regime in the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms五代十國, its primary territory, which means Jiang-huai, would become the primary scope of geographical investigation in this study. The base point of this thesis was set in 874, the year when Huang Chao Rebellion erupted, and the end point was set in 974, the year when Sothern Tang was conquered by Northern Song. The main concern of this thesis is a twofold one: the first is about the cultural identity of the Southeastern literati in terms of how they accumulated their own cultural superiority between Tang and Song Dynasty? The second is about the relation between politics and culture in terms of the influence of the government on the Southeastern literati at this stage. In order to elaborate these two themes, this study will emphasize on the Southeastern literati’s interactions with the late Tang royal court, the Jiang-huai military governments, the Wu and the Southern Tang in sequential order. This study argues that the Southeastern literati possessed significant cultural power and prestige during late Tang. Despite their cultural superiority, they could not transform their cultural influences into political achievement in the late Tang, due to the fact the politics was monopolized by the Medieval aristocracy. However, the tremendous turmoil of late Tang thoroughly smashed aforementioned situation. Considering the unrest circumstances, many Southeastern literati chose to retreat to or stay in their homeland, while co-operating with Jiang-huai military governments. Around the tenth century, the Yang Xing-Mi bloc楊行密集團, a major force of the Jiang-huai military governments, initiatively pacified the war in Jiang-huai area. This progress relieved the literati from the warfare, which in turn benefitted the cultural development of the Jiang-huai government. Thereafter, led by the chief minister Xu Wen徐溫 and Xu Chi Kao徐知誥, the Wu kingdom undertook a series of reforms that emphasized on the scholarization of bureaucrats. Sothern Tang, the successor of Wu kingdom, not only inherited the policy of reformation, but deepened its degree to the extreme level. In the late Sothern Tang (943-974), the scholarized bureaucrats, lots of them were literati, had become the most powerful group in politics. In this trend, Southeastern literati obtained more and more opportunities to join this regime, which naturally returned to promote the growth of Southeastern literati. The cultural accumulation of Southeastern literati between Tang and Song Dynasty did not vanish along with the decadence of Southern Tang; instead, the Southeastern literati of the early Song were significantly indebted to this heritage. Meanwhile, by way of conclusion, the legacy of these literati was to be significantly influential to the literal culture of the North Song.

'Wine' was one of the most important symbols and subjects existed witin the tradition of Chinese poetry; and the correlation of 'wine' and 'red' truly had their own literary symbols. The correlation of those two words were started to emerge among the poems during the end of the Sui Dynasty. After that, a lot of poets in the Tang Dynasty also followed the expression of 'wine red' into their poems. There were three symbols beneath this expression. Firstly, conveying the sorrow of unfulfillment at the end of life year. Next, protraiting the beauties when they were drunk. Finally, displaying the feasts and parties. However, in the Song Dynasty, there were no other breakthrough toward the use of 'wind red' until the appearance of Su Shi. He broadened the interpretation of 'wine red', which had indicated as the elderly, whom had a young face. In terms of ”Innovative Thinking”, the author discussed how Su Shi innovated the new concepts and expressions, which were based on the previous prototype. According to the references the author had found, the main poetic features could be divided into half. Firstly, Su Shi were used to contradict the forms and meanings of the poems to develop the new symbol. Secondly, he was not only to follow the traditional symbol of 'wine red', but also think outside the framework. As the typical example of the method of ”Changing the Bones and Altering the Fetus”, this method initially appeared in Leng zhai Poetry Talks (Monk Hui Hong,); and the following poetic productions in the Song Dynasty were all cited or succeeded this mehtod. Hong Mai (Rong Zhai Essay), however, came up with his opinion on Su Shi's poetic features. He stated that Su Shi could be based on the traditional poetic symbols and innovated into the novel interpretations of 'wine red', which had never been achieved by the rest of poets. Therefore, in the light of prototype shift of 'wind red' symbols, the auther would explicate how Su Shi could base on the mainstream poetic state, which advocated as ”Meticulous Concept and Expression” in the Song D ynasty, to establish his own poetic state of ”Innovative Concept and Expression”.

Literary variation due to uniquely distinguished style from that of conventional rules takes on various labels. Yang Wanli labeled those unconventional methods as ”reverse the verdict method” in his work ”Chengzhai Poetry”, Huang Gianting labeled those as ”wearing a sock inside out method”, while Wei Quingzhi labeled those as ”reversing the words method”. Song poets are reluctant to follow guidelines from their predecessors, and often utilize unique techniques that dazzle their audience, some of which became milestones of unconventional poems. Wang AnShui exemplifies Song poets who astonished the audience with creative and unique unconventional writing style. His work will be used to illustrate the birth of ”reverse the verdict method” during the Northern Song Dynasty, and furthermore, I will explore the distinguished composition technique, and how it gave birth to a new style and at the same time reflected on the classis. I will establish grounds that the ”reverse the verdict method” was based on the ”truth” in historical references, and paid homage to the essence of Chinese Literature. Song Dynasty was unique in many ways. First, literary proficiency was high during that period, and those who are proficient are often encouraged to question and critique the contents to shed new light and voice out individual opinion. Such was not the case in prior dynasties where literary taboo and cautious approach were taken when studying classic works. This wave of individualism was further fueled by political reform pioneered by Wang which sparked the ensuing political struggle between the Conservative and the Reformist. His literary works intertwine with his life and exemplifies his struggle and battle against the Conservative. The ”reverse the verdict method” of writing was not only a new milestone in distinguishing new style in literary works, but it also takes a stand in political minefield and seek differences within similarity and similarity within differences. He expressed his different opinion in the struggle between ”Chu” and ”Han” and sought out unique insights about stories of Wang Zhou Gin, furthermore, he relentlessly sought out new ways to write and compose, making the literary works in Song Dynasty distinguished from Tang Dynasty. His contribution was not limited to development of new style, but he also expressed the desire of poets willing to go after to analyst historical accuracy in literature to further sort facts from fiction, and faults from righteous actions through careful tailor of literary styles, magnifying and pull away of segmental writing to bring life historical events in witty and satirical criticisms to restore the ”truth” of the past.

Chinese foreign relations in pre-modern settings can be described as flexible and pragmatic. When China was strong like in the Qin and Han dynasties, it enforced a world order placing China in the center of the universe. However, when China was relatively weak compared to its neighbors, Chinese rulers would share their legitimate ruling position, namely the Son of Heaven, with their counterparts in foreign states. The latter is exactly the situation that had happened in the Song Dynasty (960-1279). This paper intends to use five Northern Song envoys as case study to expound this historical phenomenon. Moreover, these figures representing the five key time periods of the Song-Liao relations deserve a close examination, not only to understand their contributions but more importantly, the patterns of China's foreign relations in the Northern Song Dynasty (960-1127).

Wan Shu(萬樹) was seen as one of the significant masters between Ming and Qing Dynasty. His contribution mainly focused on the studies of Tz'u Versification in Song Dynasty. In the first chapter,the importance of this study on Chinese Tz'u Versification of Wan shu's Tz'u Lv.In the second chapter, the biography of Wan Shu had been re-investigated with new literatures, includes the emendation on all of Wan Shu's poetry and Tz-Lyric works, compilation of lost works and the chronological quotation articles based on the inter-conflation of different editions of collections. The third chapter has investigated how Wan Shu's created behaviors in the literature societies. Especially in the third section of chapter 2,the study of Wan shu's writing strategies in the book of Tz'u Lv. The fourth chapter uncovered the study on Chinese Tz'u Versification of Wan shu's Tz'u Lv,and viewed through steeled way.The fifth chapter includes the characteristic and the influence of Wan Shu's study,and has concluded the entire research, and has raised all of the study by Wan Shu's theory of Tz-lyric to be the promising subjects of the future researches.

According to Yue Fei’s biography, when the legendary general was slandered and interrogated for treason, he tore the shirt off his body, exposing four characters tattooed on his back: “Exhaust one’s loyalty in service of the state.” This study looks at two components of the Yue Fei story—patriotic tattoos, and tattooed generals—and examines their meaning in the broader stretch of Song dynasty history. Yue Fei was not the Song dynasty’s only tattooed general who came to a tragic end. The Northern Song’s Di Qing was a tattooed soldier whose military merit allowed him to rise to the highest levels of power in the empire. Di Qing’s story makes it clear that tattooed generals were objects of suspicion and ridicule at court due to their military tattoos, a trait that linked them to the criminals and lower class men that manned the Song armies. Though military tattoos sometimes had a loyalist ring to them, they were carried out on a mass scale, and were a characteristic of coercion rather than fervent loyalism. This study shows that underneath the nationalist historical narrative of the Song dynasty, of which Yue Fei is a famous example, there lies a different story of social conflict within the Song state. Rather than a story of Chinese fighting non-Chinese and of traitorous and cowardly officials struggling with loyal patriots, this study offers a narrative of a social conflict between high-born clear-skinned officials and low-born tattooed military men.

Reviewed by: The Problem of Beauty: Aesthetic Thought and Pursuits in Northern Song Dynasty China Roslyn Lee Hammers (bio) Ronald Egan . The Problem of Beauty: Aesthetic Thought and Pursuits in Northern Song Dynasty China. Harvard East Asian Monographs 271. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center, 2006. 405 pp. Hardcover $49.95, ISBN 0–674–02264–5. Ronald Egan's latest contribution to Northern Song literary studies delivers a wide ranging narrative apropos of, and a welcome compliment to, the voracious intellectualism of a culturally charged era. The Problem of Beauty offers an impressive exploration of Egan's established interests in two preeminent scholar-officials, Ouyang Xiu and Su Shi, while embarking upon new directions in other areas of cultural production. The book's scope engages larger implications of the two literary scholars' separate and sometimes competing assessments of Northern Song artistic and cultural practices. Ideas of aesthetic pleasure as embodied in these two scholars would subsequently enter public discourse through the works of their tenth- and early eleventh-century contemporaries, including Mi Fu, Wang Shen, Huang Tingjian, Sima Guang, and Qin Guan. As Egan notes in the introduction, this study is not a comprehensive or a systematic discussion of Northern Song aesthetics. Rather it is a selection of topics that emerged during the Northern Song and in Egan's view were unprecedented in the aesthetic discourse of the time. A perusal of these topics makes for insightful and sometimes surprising reading. The book offers fresh perspectives on the dynamic nature of Northern Song scholarship as it intersects with uncharted areas of aesthetics. It consists of six chapters offering Egan's analysis of Northern Song dynasty thought that has received little or no critical, scholarly attention. Ouyang Xiu is central to the first half of The Problem of Beauty. The book opens with a discussion of this scholar's pioneering collection of lapidary inscriptions and problems of methodology associated with their selection. Through an analysis of Ouyang Xiu's own accounts of specific inscriptions, Egan constructs an account characterized by the scholar's vacillating justifications for possessing the writings. Egan shows that Ouyang cannot quite make his collection wholly consistent with the cultural values of the time. He accommodates calligraphy that he finds "especially attractive," not necessarily didactic or historically significant. Ouyang has to balance the collection's larger intellectual weight against the aesthetic gravitas of the calligraphy that he cherishes for its beauty alone. How Ouyang negotiates one of the oldest art historical debates is borne out with a mixture of wit and lucid scholarly interpretation. It is this combination that makes The Problem of Beauty an engaging as well as penetrating work. Egan has combed painstakingly through Ouyang Xiu's and later Su Shi's respective oeuvres to distill, in his own inimitable style, an account of aesthetic choices that clearly animated Northern Song cultural ideas. Reading [End Page 424] Egan's account one becomes aware that many of these debates are just as relevant today as they were when the two literati masters engaged with them. Egan's ability to bring tenth-century aesthetic debates to life is most evident when he discusses Ouyang Xiu's scholarship on the peony in chapter three. The flower was considered ravishing and sensuous, and therefore a highly inappropriate subject for intellectual discussion. Through a comparison of texts related to the peony, Egan elucidates how Ouyang's perspective on the flower was radically original. In his treatise, Ouyang eagerly demonstrated his hands-on knowledge regarding the botanical and technical aspects of the flower's cultivation. From his writings as Egan reconstructs them, the reader can imagine that Ouyang had personally cultivated the peony. Ouyang displayed an enthusiasm for the flower that at the time was unprecedented for a scholar. Ouyang also offered unusual commentary on the fanfare that erupted in Luoyang (a city that was and still is famous for its peonies) during the flower's blooming season. This discussion of popular culture, particularly one associated with a flower, was a subject also unworthy of an intellectual. As Egan notes, Ouyang was compelled to find fault with the peony. Its beauty was manipulated by man and therefore unnatural. In Egan's account...

Reviewed by: Divided by a Common Language: Factional Conflict in Late Northern Song China Tze-ki Hon (bio) Ari Daniel Levine. Divided by a Common Language: Factional Conflict in Late Northern Song China. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2008. xvi, 273 pp. Hardcover $57.00, ISBN 978-0-8248-3266-7. Like other major dynasties of imperial China, the history of the Song (960–1279) is filled with controversies. In terms of chronology, the Song closes the first millennium of imperial China and opens its second millennium. This temporal characteristic has prompted some historians to declare a “Tang-Song transition” that marks the end of aristocracy in early imperial China and the rise of civil bureaucrats in late imperial China.1 The transition is said to have been driven by an unprecedented expansion of the civil service examinations in the early Song, and thereby ushered in a mobile society and an enriching urban lifestyle that were unmatched elsewhere in premodern times.2 Nevertheless, if we turn our attention from the broad picture of late imperial China and focus just on the Song, we have a completely different perspective. Compared to other major dynasties, such as the Han (206 b.c.e.–220 c.e.) and the Tang (618–907), the Song was clearly an “embattled state” that struggled to defend its borders against the Khitans, the Tanguts, and the Mongols.3 The dynasty was so overwhelmed by foreign crises that the imperial court lost control of northern China in 1127 and moved south to the [End Page 446] Yangzi River delta. To mark this disastrous event, the Song Dynasty is traditionally divided into two periods: the Northern Song (960–1127) and the Southern Song (1127–1279). For some Chinese historians, particularly those who suffered from foreign invasions during the early twentieth century, the Song dynasty is a low point in Chinese history when the leaders failed to protect the territorial sovereignty of the country.4 Similar conflicting views are found in interpreting the Song factionalism. On the one hand, some historians see the chronic factionalism in the Song government as an expression of the will of the civil bureaucrats to co-rule the country with the emperor. Selected from all walks of life and thoroughly tested in the civil service examinations, the civil bureaucrats considered themselves the representatives of “the ruled” (min 民) whose interests must be protected by a responsive and responsible government.5 Hence, factional rivalry and factional rhetoric were part of the internal dynamics among various groups of the civil bureaucrats who constantly debated about the “proper national policy” (guoshi 國是) in front of the emperor.6 To other historians, however, factionalism was a major cause for the breakdown of the Song government.7 Literally dividing the government into two opposing camps — the “gentlemen” (junzi 君子) and the “petty persons” (xiaoren 小人) — factional rivalry destabilized and debilitated the administration. Not only did each side blame the other for causing problems for the country, but each also adopted measures to expunge the opponents from government. Sometimes, factional politics could become violent and vindictive, such as the decades-long rivalry during between the “reform group” led by Wang Anshi (1021–1086) and the “anti-reform group” led by Sima Guang (1019–1086).8 Constantly shifting back and forth between the two camps, the Northern Song government failed to implement an effective policy to solve the mounting fiscal and economic problems. In Divided by a Common Language, Levine supports the second view of the Song factionalism. In this first book-length study of the history of factionalism in the Northern Song, Levine not only shows the devastating impact of factionalism, but also gives a detailed analysis of the Northern Song factional rhetoric. Levine makes three important points. First, he proves that the civil bureaucrats employed similar concepts and categories in demonizing their opponents in political debates. Despite their hostility to one another, they shared “a common intellectual inventory” that was drawn from the same set of literary and historical texts (pp. 24–41). Because of their similar backgrounds, the opposing camps of civil bureaucrats actually had more in common than they realized. Hence, Levine suggests that “[o]ver the decades from the onset...

Reviewed by: The Way of the Barbarians: Redrawing Ethnic Boundaries in Tang and Song China by Shao-yun Yang Jonathan Karam Skaff Shao-yun Yang. The Way of the Barbarians: Redrawing Ethnic Boundaries in Tang and Song China. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2019. Pp. 242. $30 (paper); $99 (hardcover). ISBN 978-0295746036 Shao-yun Yang investigates intellectual shifts in "premodern Chinese attitudes regarding ethnocultural identity and difference" that occurred in the late Tang and Northern Song periods (3). He believes that previous studies of this topic have been influenced by the modern nationalistic assumption that foreign threats naturally encourage "a stronger emphasis on ethnic solidarity and greater hostility toward ethnocultural others" (4). Yang's goal is to explain attitudes of late Tang and Northern Song scholars toward foreigners in terms that more closely correspond to premodern Chinese conceptions. The introduction and the first two chapters explore the thought of the influential Tang scholar-official, Han Yu 韓愈 (768–824) who famously was the leader of the Guwen 古文 (Ancient-Style Prose) literary movement that reacted against the florid parallel prose of the Six Dynasties and early Tang. Philosophically, Han Yu's well-known essay, "Tracing the Way to Its Source" (Yuandao 原道), advocated for a Confucian/Classicist (Ru 儒) revival of "The Way of the Sages" (Shengren zhi Dao 聖人之道), which he believed to have been declining since the time of Mencius. One putative cause of degeneration was the "barbaric" foreign religion of Buddhism. Yang agrees with other scholars, such as Charles Hartman, that Han Yu's ideas about religion and identity should not be described as xenophobic or nativistic because Han opposed not only Buddhism, but also Daoism. Han Yu's attack on the religions radically challenged Tang imperial ideology that drew upon Classicism, Daoism, and Buddhism for legitimacy. However, in contrast to Hartman and others who interpret "Tracing the Way to Its Source" as advocating to restore Confucian "cultural orthodoxy," Yang has coined a neologism, "ethnicized orthodoxy," to describe Han's views. The book's introduction argues that the term "ethnicized" is better suited than "cultural" to describe Han Yu's proposed orthodoxy because premodern Chinese (Hua 華 or Xia 夏) lacked a concept analogous to "culture" defined as "shared values, beliefs, and practices" (11). In addition, "ethnicized" better conveys the radicalism of Han Yu's rhetorical strategy to depict "alternative philosophical and religious traditions as un-Chinese and barbaric. … According to such rhetoric there was fundamentally no such thing as a Chinese Buddhist or even a Chinese Daoist" (16). This was "an ideology-centered [End Page 354] interpretation of Chineseness" (4–5) that "ethnicized … the boundaries of Classicist orthodoxy" (15). Ethnicized orthodoxy was not an identity, but rather was a rhetorical device meant to shame opponents in intellectual debates by "denying their Chineseness" (56). However, in Chapter 2, Yang seemingly contradicts his own argument by disagreeing with scholars, such as Peter Bol, who "see Han Yu as imputing a barbaric essence to Daoism" (53). Yang contends that Han Yu's language is ambiguous about whether Daoism is as barbaric as Buddhism or merely inferior to Classicism. Instead, Chapter 4 credits the Northern Song "Guwen radical," Liu Kai 柳開 (947–1000)—who considered Han Yu and himself to be the final two sages transmitting the true Way—as the first to impute barbarism unequivocally to both Daoism and Buddhism. If Han Yu was only Liu Kai's inspiration to ethnicize the Way of the Sages, then perhaps another label Yang uses to characterize Han's thought, "ideological exclusivity," more aptly represents the ideas of both scholars (43, 222). Yang argues that late Tang scholars developed another discourse of "ethnocentric moralism" that eventually superseded ethnicized orthodoxy and became mainstream during the Northern Song. In coining this second neologism, Yang selects the modern concept of "ethnocentrism"—defined as the "subjective belief that one's (sic) own people and their ways are superior to all others" (14)—because of its close correspondence to premodern Chinese attitudes. "Moralism" more conventionally refers to the propensity of Classicists to judge people according adherence to ritual propriety (li 禮) and moral duty (yi 義). Yang locates the origins of this discourse in late Tang essays, including Cheng Yan's 程晏 (fl. 895–904) "Call to...

‘Guwen’ Lineage Discourse in the Northern Song Douglas Skonicki During the Northern Song dynasty (960–1127), several proponents of guwen 古文, or Ancient-style Learning, began to appeal to a lineage of former worthies consisting of Mencius (fl. 4th c. bce), Xunzi (fl. 3rd c. bce), Yang Xiong 揚雄 (53 bce–18 ce), Wang Tong 王通 (c. 584–617), and Han Yu 韓愈 (768–824) to both justify their views of the Confucian dao and push for the adoption of specific strategies to expand guwen’s influence. Building upon earlier conceptions of these figures formulated in the Tang, Song guwen thinkers such as Liu Kai 柳開 (947–1000), Sun Fu 孫復 (992–1057), and Shi Jie 石介 (1005–1045) held the worthies up as models and asserted that their examples could guide current efforts to defend and reinvigorate the dao of the sages. Yet, despite their passionate endorsement of this lineage, it ultimately failed to achieve widespread acceptance among either guwen adherents or the wider elite. Indeed, by the middle of the eleventh century, writings using the lineage of former worthies to legitimate a particular intellectual position by and large disappear from the historical record. The few studies that exist on guwen lineages have for the most part sought to situate them within the larger history of daoxue 道學 and Buddhist lineage discourse. The scholars operating within this framework have attempted to answer two key questions: What impact did Chan conceptions of lineage have over the formation of guwen lineages, particularly that expressed in Han Yu’s “On the Origin of the Way” (Yuandao 原道)?1 And, to what extant did guwen lineages influence Zhu Xi’s later formulation of the “genealogy of the Way” (daotong 道統)?2 These questions have moreover been asked, and [End Page 1] answered, without a thorough consideration of the role lineage played in the guwen intellectual tradition.3 An important exception to this general approach can be found in He Jipeng’s study of guwen lineages, which discarded, appropriately in my view,4 this twofold problematic.5 He instead focused his research on elucidating the origins and subsequent development of this lineage discourse. In addition to demonstrating the existence of a number of precedents in Tang writings that antedated the rudimentary conception of lineage advanced by Han Yu, He assessed the more fully developed notions of lineage proposed by the followers of Han’s learning in the Song. The primary aim of He’s analysis was to determine the criteria that guwen intellectuals used in constructing lineages, and he maintained that they employed two distinct, yet related standards—wen 文 and dao 道. These two standards were related because to be included in any guwen lineage, a former worthy had to compose wen that elucidated the dao of the ancient sages; they were distinct in that guwen thinkers placed different degrees of emphasis upon the criteria of wen and dao in their respective accounts. As the most comprehensive study of this discourse to date, He’s research represents an important contribution to our understanding of the guwen intellectual [End Page 2] tradition. His analysis, however, is primarily descriptive in nature, and he by and large refrains from asking how conceptions of the former worthies figured into the intellectual arguments of the thinkers he investigates. In this article, I build upon He’s work by interrogating the purposes to which lineage was put by the supporters of guwen in the Northern Song.6 That is, I seek to determine both how lineage figured into guwen arguments from this period and how certain thinkers used it to promulgate their vision of the guwen intellectual agenda. I moreover attempt to explain the reasons behind its fairly limited appeal and eventual decline. My analysis of Northern Song guwen lineage discourse proceeds in three parts. In Part One, I briefly examine how Han Yu and his followers in the Tang discussed the importance of the former worthies, particularly Mencius and Yang Xiong. In this section of the article, I highlight the significance of several ideas regarding the worthies that would figure prominently in later Northern Song conceptions. In Part Two, I investigate the views of the three Song guwen thinkers who wrote the most extensively on this lineage—Liu Kai, Sun...

The literati and officialdom in the Northern Song Dynasty developed a political consciousness and demands that had not existed among their predecessors. They established political identities and cultivated a strong sense of political subjectivity. This paper mainly examines how the literati and officialdom politics developed and evolved in the Northern Song Dynasty. Using the research method of literature reviews, the paper focuses on the following questions: how the emperors of the early Northern Song Dynasty designed and constructed governing structures, how these structures affected the literati and bureaucratic system, and how literati and officialdom politics developed based on their acceptance and rejection of these ideas. The Northern Song literati showed their unique cultural profile as they ruled together with the emperor and, as a result, created a peculiar literati bureaucratic politics. The Northern Song literati bureaucrats evolved and strengthened their subjectivity both through the political status they acquired and through their political participation.

The literati and officialdom in the Northern Song Dynasty developed a political consciousness and demands that had not existed among their predecessors. They established political identities and cultivated a strong sense of political subjectivity. This paper mainly examines how the literati and officialdom politics developed and evolved in the Northern Song Dynasty. Using the research method of literature reviews, the paper focuses on the following questions: how the emperors of the early Northern Song Dynasty designed and constructed governing structures, how these structures affected the literati and bureaucratic system, and how literati and officialdom politics developed based on their acceptance and rejection of these ideas. The Northern Song literati showed their unique cultural profile as they ruled together with the emperor and, as a result, created a peculiar literati bureaucratic politics. The Northern Song literati bureaucrats evolved and strengthened their subjectivity both through the political status they acquired and through their political participation.