Висячие и Фрейлинский сады Царскосельского парка

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In contrast to theories of poetry or rhetoric, no complete ancient theory of the figurative arts survives. Renaissance authors wishing to underpin the “rebirth” of painting therefore had to resort to a variety of strategies to invent a new genre. Literary metaphors and fragments from artists’ biographies (mainly from Pliny) were joined with scientific discoveries such as the theory of perspective and the proportions of human anatomy. Leon Battista Alberti’s On Painting of 1435 was the first text to merge ancient conceptions and newfangled geometric insights into a coherent whole that professed to revive classical art theory. His efforts sparked the development of a sizeable genre in Italy in the 15th and 16th centuries. In 17th-century France, the Netherlands and (to a lesser extent) Spain and Britain developed their own traditions. These texts shared a prescriptive approach in combination with biographical information about artists. As a central tenet from Alberti onward, humanistic knowledge was tied to basic acquaintance with the artist’s studio. Only at the end of the 16th century did art theory become a topic for courtiers stylizing their texts in a literary fashion. In the 17th century, the role of learned art lovers and their symbiotic relationship to the painters became increasingly important. By comparing the figurative arts to respectable activities such as poetry, rhetoric, and antiquarianism, and by drawing humanistic interest to the painter’s workshop, these texts served an essential role in facilitating the communication between craftsmen and the lettered. Developing the ideal of the “learned painter,” the textual tradition thus developed synchronously to the artist’s changing social status. Whereas in the 16th century most authors were artists or had some link to studio practice, in the 17th century amateur-connoisseurs began to replace them; simultaneously, visual art and its theory were institutionalized in the first academies of art. Implicitly or explicitly, Renaissance treatises on painting have, therefore, as their main argument the inclusion of painting among the liberal arts, the intellectual activities worthy of the universal man. Other written sources relevant for the historical reconstruction of manners of speaking about the visual arts include poems, plays, and diaries. As a topic of analysis, sculpture plays a comparatively minor role.

Contents. 1. Introduction: The central problem of design theory. Theories of form. A paradox in western theories of design. The subject-object problem 2. The Ancient World: The origins of design theory and education. The Greek revolution in philosophy. Greek Art and Architecture theory. Vitruvius 3. The Middle Ages: Shift from the secular to the divine. Medieval art and architecture theory. Scholasticism. Education in the guilds and universities 4. The Renaissance: The revival of ancient concepts. Art theory in the High Renaissance. The Mannerist extremes. The new art academies. The rise of Positivist science 5. The Baroque: The Baroque dualities. Rationalism and the priority of reason. Empiricism and the priority of sense. Art and architecture theory and the academics 6. The Enlightenment: Revolutionary foundations of the modern world. Positivism and the new deterministic sciences of man.The Romantic rebellion. Neo- Classicism and the academics. Immanual Kant and the synthesis of subject and object. 7. The Nineteenth century: Philosophical relativism and artistic eclecticism Classicism and The Ecole Des Beaux-Arts. German idealism, romanticism, and the Gothic revival. Positivism and artistic determinism. The shift to abstraction in art 8. The Twentieth Century (I): The reaction to the relativism in philosophy. The opposed sources of architectural form. the opposed sources of artistic form. The Bauhaus conflation. The Modern Movement 9. Twentieth Century (II): Late Modernism. Positivism and environmental design. Structuralism. Post-modernism and Post-structuralism List of illustrations Bibliography

The article follows the travels of a richly carved limestone fireplace that was originally located in 71 Pikk St., Tallinn. It was commissioned by local merchant Jacob Höppener in 1653; in the middle of the 19th century it was sold and taken to Russia. Several Baltic German heritage enthusiasts produced descriptions of the artefact, but after the historical upheavals of the beginning of the 20th century lost sight of it. From the middle of the century, Estonian art historiansstudying stone carvings and restoring the building made efforts to find the fireplace, but in vain.The paper examines the archival, printed and web sources about the artefact and traces it to its new locations, first in St. Petersburgand then in Tsarskoye Selo. The fireplace’s new owners, the princes Kochubey, used it to enhance the Historicist interiors of theirresidences. During the Soviet period the artefact’s provenance was forgotten and it was inaccessible to the public. In recent years, thefireplace has been reintroduced to a wider audience; a new origin story and a new interpretation of its iconography have been proposed and popularised by the Kochubey Centre.The article brings together the sources and results from researchers in different countries who have studied this mobile artefact over one-and-a-half centuries. The rediscovery of the Höppener-Kochubey fireplace is a solution to a longstanding mystery, and the artefact haswelcome similarities to Renaissance era stone carvings in Estonia. This case study also uncovers information about the sale of antiquities, the use of those antiquities in interior design, the interests and goals of collectors, and knowledge transfer through learned societies in 19th century Estonia, Latvia and Russia.

With the continuous completion of Chinese educational system, teaching course content of higher education has been increasingly richer and people's philosophy of receiving education is also increasingly stronger.In order to respond to the nation's call of developing comprehensive education, some universities have added basic courses of art educations one after another.Some parents send their children to professional art training classes for professional training and some students sign up for art academies in college entrance examination to realize their art dreams.Art theory courses are the basic links of art education.Only by laying solid basis can one realize his dreams of art.This paper explains the importance of art theory in art education from the perspectives of the content of art theory and learning art theories.Art theory is the most basic and most critical teaching content in art education.To primary art students, art theory is especially important.It can provide valuable technical guidance to students.At present, many art academies pursue the improvement of students' art techniques excessively in art education without realizing the importance of art theory and such unbalanced education viewpoints and educational methods go against students' comprehensive development.Valuing the teaching of art theory and "engaging in idle theorizing" are never the same.In art education process, the teaching goal of valuing professional theory courses is to keep the balanced status between technique course teaching and theoretical class teaching so that every student can obtain comprehensive development in professional art education. Concept of art theoryDefinition of art theory.At present, many art academies pursue the improvement of students' art techniques excessively in art education without realizing the importance of art theory and such unbalanced education viewpoints and educational methods go against students' comprehensive development.Valuing the teaching of art theory and "engaging in idle theorizing" are never the same.From the perspective of the essence of aesthetics, most artists believe that art theories are practical summaries of people in the creation process of art forms.Generally speaking, people's generalized understanding of art theory includes art history, art basic theory, artistic aesthetics and artistic criticism.However, to academic field, the narrow category is usually adopted, which means that art theory refers to basic theories of art.Basic theories of art take art works creation and art works appreciation as research objects and are integrated into natural real life.When they are studying art theories (including discussion on the essence and characteristics of art), they are also studying sociology, psychology and art philosophy.Development history of Chinese art theory.In earlier stages of art theory development, there was no systemic art knowledge system or concept of art theory, and there were only viewpoints of art creation, which became the predecessor of art theory.China has 5000 years of historical civilization and art developed every early.As early as Shang and Zhou dynasties, painting types which took lacquer painting as art forms had appeared.With the emergence of characters, some viewpoints on art were also documented in literatures.The pre-Qin period was the most glorious period in Chinese cultural academic history, in which the prosperous scene of "contention of a hundred schools of thought" was formed.Art theory development under this background."Painting after simplicity" "unrestrained painting" and "dogs and horses are the most difficult to be painted" were the earliest record of art theories.They not only have guidance significance on art painting, but also have rich philosophical thoughts.When it came to the Period of Wei, Jin and Southern and

Relevance of the study. The evolution and the very phenomenon of the Salzburg Festival go hand in hand with the history of music and theatre, the philosophy of art, and the global musical infrastructure of the 20th and early 21st centuries. On the one hand, it is their fair reflection; while on the other hand, it is an integral part of their development. That is why studying and understanding the role and place of the Salzburg Festival is essential for understanding contemporary musical culture in a current historical perspective.Relevance of the study is attributable to the fact that, for the first time in Ukrainian historical musicology, the development and implementation of the idea of holding the Salzburg Festival are considered, indirect relations between the festival ideologists and the Ukrainian cultural space at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries are discovered, and the century-old history of the main European music and theatre forum is systematized.Main objective of the study is to introduce the phenomenon of the Salzburg Festival as a historical and cultural integrity in the space of the Ukrainian musicological discourse, as well as to outline and systematize a one hundred-year path of the main music and theatre forum in Europe.Methodology of the study includes the use of historical, culturological, and systemic approaches.Results and conclusions. The study revealed that at the stage of shaping the idea of the festival in Salzburg at the beginning of the twentieth century, there were two fundamental visions of its implementation, namely, “Mozart-oriented” and “general theatrical”. They both entered the gene code of the Salzburg Music and Theatre Forum with varying interpretations of its concept and repertoire policy at each phase of its existence. The change of priorities in its fundamental triad, that is, drama — opera — concert, during forum varying periods is also traced.The hundred-year journey of the Salzburg Festival may be divided into three main stages: 1) the development and search of self-identity (1920–1954); 2) “stabilization” and formation of international prestige (1955–1990); and 3) “modernization” and expansion of cultural horizons (from 1991 until today). Each of them is well integrated into history of Western European music and culture of the 20th and early 21st centuries.

The history of tuberculosis as a worldwide fatal illness traces back to antiquity, a well-known disease in ancient civilizations. However, its causative agent remained unidentified until the last decades of the 19th century, when discovered by Robert Koch. In due course, preparation of the BCG vaccine, application of the Mantoux intradermal diagnostic tuberculosis test and administration of proper antituberculosis medications eventually controlled tuberculosis. However, despite these significant advancements tuberculosis remained uneradicated, particularly in developing countries after the emergence of both multidrug-resistant tuberculosis and HIV co-infection. Presented here, is a brief review of the history of tuberculosis in the world as well as its historical background in Iran, mainly during the 19th and 20th centuries.

Leo Tolstoy was an artist whose influence on global culture extends beyond his masterful works of fiction to encompass his philosophical reflections on art. This article focuses on the formation and development of Tolstoy's conception of art and its core tenets. The aim of this research is to address the question of the socio-cultural function that true art, according to the writer, should assume in the 20th century. The study's novelty lies in presenting Tolstoy's philosophy of art as an ontological and social phenomenon, one intended to facilitate the creative subject's attainment of meaning in life. The results obtained demonstrate that the writer conceived of true art not only as a cultural institution, but also as a spiritual and social one, capable of unifying society. At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, Tolstoy identified the challenges of the impending cultural era and outlined his proposed solutions: in the writer's view, neither science nor religion could save the world – only art, sincere, truthful, and unifying. The research is defined by the issues of interaction between aesthetic, social, and religious principles, as set forth in the 19th century and highly demanded by science and culture in the 20th and 21st centuries.

China underwent tremendous changes in the 20th century, from the empire to the economic boom around 2000. These are reflected in many different ways in the aesthetics. The book follows the main currents and examines the relationship between tradition and Western-influenced modernity. What is meant by Chinese aesthetics eludes the quick grasp of Western terminology. Is it a science of sensory cognition, a theory of the liberal arts or, more generally, a theory of art and/or beauty? What seems to be most interesting about it is what cannot be smoothly integrated into a discourse framework such as that of Western aesthetics.

Mythological Indifference in Schelling and Nerval

The article is devoted to the history of the appearance of garden pavilions and Russian palace chambers also known as "hermitages." The tradition of building hermitages as special-purpose premises, adopted in Russia in the early eighteenth century, had acquired during the reign of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna a meaningful national character and scope. Hereby, this tradition may be considered as one of the major cultural phenomena of that time. At the same time, Russian hermitages were significantly different in their function from the British and continental European hermitages. Their main function throughout the eighteenth century remained that of a private, isolated dining room equipped with a special table volante mechanism that allowed those who had gathered to eat without servants. The article therefore also pays attention to the role of mechanical tables and mechanical amusement machines in the baroque court culture. It also compares the design of Elizabeth Petrovna's dining hermitage in Tsarskoye Selo with European architectural treatises. The reader is also acquainted with the reasons for the development of such functional and iconographic features of Russian hermitage architecture, which occupies a special place in the vast and varied European tradition of hermitage construction.

The paper analyzes gardens and landscapes of the Renaissance, Mannerism and Baroque with particular attention to moral themes and Christian symbols. I follow the devel-opment of moral topography in the gardens by examples of Villa Hadriana, Villa d’Este in Tivoli, Versailles, Tsarskoye Selo, Désert de Retz, Sanspareil, Regaleira. The two types of gar-dens are identified: architectural (Castelo Branco, Bom Jesus do Monte in Braga) and land-scaping (Bomarzo, Cetinale, Esztergom, Buçaco, Kuks, Valsanzibio). The paper then turns to “sacred mountains” created in the foothills of Italian Alps as a symbolic barrier at the bor-der of Protestant lands. The interplay of gardens themselves and their descriptions, such as in “The Path of Purification”, the treatise by Francesco de’ Vieri on Pratolino, 1587 and in the inscriptions in Valsanzibio, is also discussed. Further in the paper I wonder about how moral programs of gardens can be studied and incorporated in the history of ideas and religiosity. The work is based on the materials of author’s travels and is illustrated with his photographs. Translations into Russian are by B. Sokolov.

We propose a discussion on two writings of the 16th century, specifically the fourth chapter of his Idea del tempio della pittura by Giovan Paolo Lomazzo (first published in 1591), dedicated to “the ancient and modern writers of art” (Lomazzo, 1971, p. 34) and Antonio Possevino’s chapter “Painting precepts transmitted by the ancients and the moderns”, from his Tractatio de Poesi et pintura ethnica, humana et fabulosa collata cum vera, honesta et sacra (1595). Both the authors must be considered, beside the much more known Vasari, as authors which starts to elaborate systematic approaches to art books, designing a field of knowledge through the compilation of bibliographies, somehow a new approach in this new specific fields of knowledge at the time that is called Art. The methodological approach of the study is historical, working on the original sources, in order to understand the choices in art literature that established the bases and marked the frontiers of a field of knowledge organization (KO) called Art as designed by Art History. Sources studies combine with literature reflections, inquiring what kind of knowledge field was designed by these authors and how it determined the development of art studies.

On Agricultural Sciences through the Eyes of a Folklorist Agriculture is based on understanding and respecting the patterns of nature, and the direct utilisation of nature. The ecological behavioural culture of a dweller of the land, which involves both communion with nature and taking responsibility for one’s part in the relationship, is rooted deep in our subconscious. Both a farmer and cattle breeder have harnessed the fruitfulness of the soil or the reproduction of cattle for their purposes. The scientific and technological development of agriculture is supported by basic and applied sciences. The sciences that served as the basis of agricultural technology began to evolve in the 18th and 19th century. Practical agricultural guidebooks in the first half of the 18th century still imparted old experiences. The guidelines provided often originated from Ancient Roman authors and the Bible. As traditional and science-based agriculture began to develop separately, the 19th century brought along a breakthrough. The development of technology changes society as well as nature. Technology adapts to the needs and expectations of people and society, while it becomes easier to attain and operate. Education, upbringing, and culture as a whole will change in addition to the alteration of technology pursuant to the demands of people and culture. Science is becoming more important in order to provide enough food for all the inhabitants of the Earth in modernity as the population of the Earth is consistently growing, there is only a limited amount of agricultural land and climate change is causing regional production problems as well as uncertainty. Synthetic analogues are increasingly used in addition to the raw produce received from agriculture. As can be said on the basis of analysing Internet forums—it is only habit that is stopping us from switching to artificial food, technologically it is already possible.

Part 1 Introduction: awareness of time - time and civil life, our sense of time, time and mankind describing time - time, language and number, time and natural bases of measurement, time in contemporary society. Part 2 Time in antiquity and the Middle Ages: time at the dawn of history - prehistory, ancient Egypt, Sumeria and Babylon, ancient Iran time in classical antiquity - classical Greece and Hellenistic civilization, ancient Israel, Imperial Rome and early Christendom time in the Middle Ages - medieval Europe, the Islamic world, the periodization of time and millenarianism, the measurement of time time in the Far East and Mesoamerica - India, China, the Maya. Part 3 Time in the modern world: the advent of the mechanical clock - the invention of the verge escapement, the social influence of the mechanical clock time and history in the Renaissance and the Scientific Revolution - reform of the calendar, the pendulum clock and the clocklike universe, attitudes to time and history in the 16th and 17th centuries time and history in the 18th century - the invention of the marine chronometer, the discovery of historical perspective evolution and the Industrial Revolution - the evolutionary universe, the role of time in modern industrial society rival concepts of time - instant and duration, relativistic and cosmic time civilization as progress? - time and belief in progress, time, history and the computerized society. Appendices: 1 - leap years 2 - the metonic calendrical cycle 3 - the calculation of Easter. References. Index.