От классики к модернизму: жанр параллели в фельетонной критике

The motif of memory plays a significant role in literary studies, as it reflects how individuals and societies interpret the past. This paper’s aim is to identify the transformation of the motif of memory in classical and modern literature, focusing on its narrative, psychological, and cultural directions. While classical literature often presents memory as stable and collective, modern literature depicts it as subjective, fragmented, and unreliable. Drawing on contemporary literary theory and recent scholarly works, this study demonstrates that the motif of memory is essential for understanding identity, narrative structure, and cultural change.

A Quest for Remembrance: The Underworld in Classical and Modern Literature

David Rando's meticulous and thought-provoking Modernist Fiction and News nevertheless begins with a somewhat misleading title. Rando is less concerned with specific news sources or the publication history of little magazines, and much more interested in “the news” broadly conceived in opposition, and apposition, to modernist literature. Rando's main interest is the important ways in which literary output in the early twentieth century—he concentrates on works appearing in the 1930s—reacted to and against the proliferation of newsprint in the space of the “media ecology,” building on Mark Wollaeger's 2006 Modernism, Media and Propaganda.Literature, according to Rando, both appropriates and questions the methods used in popular newspapers, using techniques like “nearness” and “delay” to open up an anecdotal space within the story itself. Rando draws heavily on Benjamin's writings about the modes of experience to lay out his argument; Benjamin also gets the very first lines of the book: “Every instant brings us news from across the globe, yet we are poor in noteworthy stories. The previous sentence is adapted from Walter Benjamin's statement in his 1936 essay, ‘The Storyteller’; I have substituted ‘instant’ for ‘morning’ and perhaps that is modification enough to make Benjamin's idea absolutely contemporary” (1).The idea of contemporaneity saturates this book, and Rando is at pains to stress the relevance of his comments about the relationality of literature and newsprint to current times: “Modernist novelists are … the first tentative denizens of the information age who responded creatively, and thus, for us, importantly, to a media environment and public orientation toward experience that has by now become quite naturalized” (23). Nearness, contiguity in time and space on multiple levels, is an important thematic concern: there is first the nearness of a page of newsprint, where each story bears little or no relation to the one contiguous to it except a random simultaneity; contrasted to this is the nearness engendered by Benjamin's idea of the anecdote, where authorial specificity “shocks” the reader into an immediate awareness of events in a way that the newspaper never can. In other words, the physical nearness of news stories on the printed page paradoxically results in a distancing and flattening of affect that, for Rando as for Benjamin, is a problem addressed through literature: “[M]odernists perceived a growing distance between news reporting and lived experience, and they developed and honed narrative techniques and an experimental resolve that made nearness and experience defining values. Improving on what the newspaper promised but failed to do, modernist novelists hoped not just to ‘make it new,’ but also to ‘make it near’” (18).To this end, Rando devotes his attention in this slim volume to a “limited” set of literary texts that includes Joyce's Finnegans Wake, Dos Passos's U.S.A., and Stein's three major autobiographical works, as well as the many references to Benjamin's writing, especially from The Arcades Project (20). He invokes Derrida's Archive Fever to theorize about the simultaneous acts of recording and repression involved in modernist literature's desire to be a better record of the times than newsprint could be. Rando's bibliography is both current and theoretically rigorous, and his revisiting of critical texts like Andreas Huyssen's After the Great Divide (1987) revitalizes older works that have already had an important impact on the field of modernist studies.The chapter titled “Nearness” begins Rando's exploration of literary space and Benjamin's understanding of experience. Beginning with the division between erfahrung and erlebnis, Rando explains that the move from the former toward the latter parallels the move from anecdotal, personal storytelling toward nuggets of information for immediate consumption, that is, the news. In this light, modernist fiction's use of the newspaper both as raw material for plot and also as props within stories, becomes a resistance to the assimilative, easy-to-consume nature of news media. Reading Woolf's “The Mark on the Wall,” Rando shows how the narrator's opening refusal to date the story “reclaim[s] an experience in time and an experience of time … [that] will form the antithesis to the newspaper's homogenous, empty time, which is held off until the very end of the story” (40). Narrative twists are tied up with formalist experiments, so that we might identify in Woolf's stream of consciousness style “a sustained fantasy that explanations and facts can be indefinitely suspended, that one might dwell in illegitimate freedom, be released from the illusion that knowledge must be cobbled together from facts, and be exempted from the compulsion to live in the world clocked and charted by homogenous, empty time” (43).Rando suggests that if newsprint can be thought of as the “conscious,” linear, all-inclusive archive, then modernist literature becomes the “unconscious,” immediate, experiential one, working with and against its other, simultaneously imitating its methods even while it questions its claims to superiority and truth. Fiction becomes not simply contra facts but a more invidious version of them. It demands that readers substitute the idle act of empathy, which comes from reading news, for the shock caused by the “pathos of nearness” brought on by anecdotal literature.In the chapter entitled “Scandal,” Rando takes on Finnegans Wake and stresses its anecdotal nature as “a space where experience can emerge with a striking and unexpected intimacy not found in a newspaper, and where history that threatens to become abstract can concretize on a human scale not often found in traditional historiography” (53). Rando's comments on Joyce vis-à-vis Dante recalls some more recent work,1 but avoids convergences between Joyce criticism and genetic criticism.2 Benjamin's idea of the “pathos of nearness,” so central to Rando's own argument, comes from the former's “First Sketches,” for the The Arcades Project, and is itself therefore a tacit invitation to further consider literary revisions as an avenue for criticism. Although Rando does not develop this insight, his work perhaps provides fruitful avenues for further inquiry.In any case, Rando begins his chapter on Joyce and scandal with a discussion of HCE's “incident” in the park and draws on the work of other literary critics, Margot Norris and Wollaeger among them, to point out that the book “embarrasses the desire of news to extract reportable events from personal experience [and brings] scandal from the distant spheres of news into the intimate space of readers” (62). While this part of the chapter might sound familiar to those who have already spent time with the Wake, the second half uses the 1922 murder case against Frederick Bywaters and Edith Thompson and builds on the work of previous critics to demonstrate how Joyce's book of the night can be read as a series of “nested books” (72), the stories within stories loosely contained by the overarching text. The adulterous romance between Bywaters and Thompson nests inside the description of Paolo and Francesca, which is itself framed in the playacting between Glugg (Shem) and Issy, and the passage ends with one finger pointed outward, implicating the audience, with one word of sympathy: “Sowouyou.”3 Rando is best when he stops to dwell in close reading a single paragraph or even a line, and his claim that in each nested story “there exists a moment of pathos in which reports and events fall away and leave unframed experience in their stead, experiences that creep up and spring upon swooning observers” (71) is entirely convincing.Rando's obvious enjoyment in the complexities of Stein and Joyce that open his book poses some danger to the rest of the volume: subsequent texts seem to pale in comparison. He faces this problem in the third chapter, where the discussion of Dos Passos's trilogy is prefaced by the observation that the liquidation of character in the Wake is only one of the ways in which modernism tries to clear a space for itself in the media ecology. Dos Passos “writes characters right on the edge of the news” in a story that has been called “plotless, or propelled forward only by historical circumstances” (74–75). Thus, “[i]f Finnegans Wake denies all abstract contexts that would remove experience from its human scale, then Dos Passos's strategy is much the opposite … characters are seen from [a] great height, almost as mere side effects of news and history” (77). This examination of character leads Rando to deeper insights about language and nationhood that are closely tied to his opening injunction that we look to the modernists' “public orientation toward experience.” In a passage that can equally be read as literary criticism and political commentary, Rando notes, “For Dos Passos, the powerful continue to pervert the radically and distressingly malleable language of America for the purposes of domination, while the powerless seek to reinforce and rebuild the language of freedom upon which America was said to be founded” (86). Linking power, language, and the media ecology together, Rando concludes that “we see different strata of power productively engaged in struggle and disputation of the same single language, in the same way that Dos Passos self-consciously sculpts his narrative out of the common language and media space he shares with the news” (94).Rando's final two chapters, “Identity” and “War,” concentrate on Stein's autobiographical works, The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas certainly, but more so Everybody's Autobiography and Wars I Have Seen, to show how the anecdotal form is used masterfully to break conventions of autobiographical writing as well as news reporting, so that one is “transformed from the empathetic newspaper reader to one who experiences a pathos of nearness” (111). These two chapters function like mirrors to each other, the first explaining Stein's pains to find an autobiographical mode that has no ending, and the second contrasting war news stories to assert the central truth about war, that it is made up of “endings of all kinds—of stories, of lives, the war, and, finally, Wars I Have Seen itself” (120). It is chiefly and most fruitfully in this last chapter that Rando turns to Derrida's ideas about archive fever, the simultaneous recording and suppressing of experience with which a testament like Wars necessarily engages. Again, Rando brings up the thorny relationship between news media and works of fiction that are forced to share the same media ecology, and shows how War both uses and abuses the techniques of reportage (one of the ironies of a book focused on “being existing,” or lived experience, is that it was marketed as war reportage when first published in 1945, and Rando dwells on the deliciousness of this). If Everybody's Autobiography is a book that is concerned with showing the hollowness of an always-already completed authorial “I” engaging with its own past, War, to Rando, is primarily concerned with ending, a (to quote Benjamin) “Messianic cessation of happening.”4 Of course, in the clash between the “real” and created worlds, there can be no ultimate contest, and Rando considers that fact: “Practically nothing can finally distinguish modernist fiction from news. The privileged sphere of the ‘literary’ is now everywhere and nowhere. The purview of news is finally everything. Between Stein and [war reporter Ernie Pyle] … there is little besides the ability to end, arrest, or stand still that can distinguish them. But it may be that this is no small difference in the age of endless information” (137).Rando's very last chapter is a brief statement he calls “Coda: Make It Now” in which he argues emphatically for the need to presume that “modernism matters most right now, and always has” (143). He cites recent work by Keith Williams and Patrick Collier, as well as Wollaeger, to assert that one must read modernism's questions and comments as relevant to our current perceived crisis in the news media. One cannot resist the rightness of his assertions—I wonder how many modernists would deny that they, at least, find the issues brought up by modernist writers relevant to their own daily, lived experiences. But Rando desires to reach beyond the literary reader, to the socially conscious and politically active one, the reader of works like Tom Fenton's Junk News: The Failure of the Media in the 21st Century (2009), which title he quotes as an example of how relevant modernist anxiety about news media is to the present day. This desire to “make now” some of the most obtuse works of modernist fiction to the field of cultural studies best further commentary. Rando's call to “make it now” strikes most powerfully in an example that he includes in his introduction but never revisits: Toni Morrison's refashioning of the real-life tale of Margaret Garner in Beloved. This novel, as opposed to Finnegans Wake or Everybody's Autobiography, say, is an example of a book that can equally be found in a small lending library or book club as in a classroom or literary investigation. It thus best demonstrates the political angle that Rando is at pains to stress: that the techniques of struggle used by fiction writers against the influence of news media can fruitfully be adapted by contemporary writers as well. Morrison's book is the best example of how Rando's conclusions about Woolf's resistance to reported time, Joyce's flirtations with scandal and immediacy, Dos Passos's refusal of historical determinacy through characterization, and Stein's ambivalence about beginnings and endings might all usefully and accessibly be applied to break the chains of constant and never-ending RSS feeds.Ultimately, this book provides a small Benjaminian shock of warning: it does not do to be glib about the shortcomings of hard-nosed commercial news media. Its strength, however, is when it ignores this larger context and concentrates on the playful, erudite reworkings of ordinary life that make up so much of modernist literature.

206Reviews awkwardly appended, while Raine airbrushes out Eliot's rhymes about King Bolo and his big black queen. What Eliot needs now is a sympathetic critical biography that is addressed to the unconverted. Pithy, provocative, donnishly brilliant, Raine's is toomuch an insider's book. University of St Andrews Robert Crawford Metafictionand Metahistory inContemporary Women'sWriting.Edited byAnn Heilmann and Mark Llewellyn. Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2007. 48.00. xi + 222 pp. isbn: 978-0-230-00504-4. Since the late 1980s,historyhas emerged as an increasinglyprominent theme incontem porarywriting, and historical literature ? a genre once dismissed as escapist pap ? has discovered a new critical and cultural respectability: what was 'then' is very 'now'. Heilmann and Llewellyn's timely collection of essays considers what is specific about how contemporary women writers represent history.Their clear and purposeful intro duction, oudining the aims and content of the volume, is followed by fourteen lively chapters thatdiscuss textsfrom North America, Australia, and the UK. Essays on canon icalwriters (Angela Carter, A. S. Byatt,JeanetteWinterson) are interwovenwith discus sions of established but neglected authors (Stevie Davies, Eva Figes, Rose Tremain, Michele Roberts, Daphne Marlatt), lesser known figures (BetsyTobin, Susan Kenney, Moy McCrory), and thosewhose work has appeared more recendy (AliceThompson, Sena JeterNaslund, Sarah Waters). As this listof names indicates, one of the strengths of thevolume lies in its scope; the essays cover popular and literarytextsand consider the representation of a range of differenthistorical periods, expanding the current critical focus on neo-Victorian literature. This scope is compromised to some degree by the inclusion of two essays on Carter. Moreover, while essays on Canadian and Australian fictionhelp togive thevolume an international dimension, furtherdiscussion of postcolonial writing and an exploration of race and ethnicity would have enabled the collection to reflecta greater plurality of historical voices. Working within the context of postmodern and feminist reconceptions of history,many of the essays employ a similar critical framework, one indebted to Adrienne Rich's notion of revision, Linda Hutcheon's definition of historio graphic metafiction, and Julia Kristeva's theory ofWomen's Time. They also cover established themes: history as a patriarchal narrative that excludes and silences female subjects; the past and literary classics (Melville's Moby Dick, de Sade's Justine, and Yeats's poetry) rewritten from a woman-centred perspective; the challenge posed to the authority and authenticity of official historical records; history as a discursive construct; the relationship between fact and fiction; and the uncertainty of historical truth. The theoretical and thematic links between chapters give the volume coherence without suppressing critical debate, and, despite a conscious effort tomake connections between the essays, some interesting and productive tensions emerge. For example, while Sherry Booth celebrates 'the role of the imagination in the creation of true stories, of YES, 39.1 & 2, 2009 207 accurate histories' (p. 45), the historian Katharine Hodgkin expresses concern about the historical accuracy of speculative fiction, highlighting a tendency for anachronism and ahistoricism. Further, while there is an acknowledgement that historical writing bywomen isnot a new genre, there isno consensus about what distinguishes contemporary women writers' engagement with history from that of theirmale peers and female predecessors. Some of the essays stress connec tions between contemporary writers and their historical antecedents (Caryl Churchill and the early nineteenth-century Scottish playwright Joanne Baillie, for example); others identify in contemporary writing a greater focus on gender, an emphasis on the fluidity of gender boundaries, the use of fairy-tale motifs, the recuperation of what has been edited out of dominant versions of the past ? domesticity, the body, desire, particularly same-sex desire (represented in Winterson, Marlatt, Waters) ? and self-reflexive intertextuality. Such points of difference only enrich the volume as a whole. As contemporary women writers' continuing preoccupation with the past demonstrates, history is far from over. By oudining key debates and critical issues, this lucid and illuminating collection of essays considers how and why women reimagine (literary) history, underlining the ways in which gender is significant to an understanding of the present as well as the past. University of Leicester Emma Parker ...

Lewis Carroll, Art DirectorRecovering the Design and Production Rationales for Victorian Editions of Alice's Adventures in Wonderland Amanda Lastoria (bio) Lewis Carroll created not only the Alice texts, but the Alice books.1 He was both author and art director. Carroll art directed the first edition of Alice's Adventures in Wonderland ([1865] 1866), and he went on to segment the Victorian children's literature market by strategically repackaging the story in a further three distinct editions. Design and production values include the cover design, typography, paper, binding and so on that constitute the look and feel of the book. These values are some—if not the only—unique selling points of books that are published in multiple editions.2 Alice is a 154-year-old material girl; she is dressed in countless guises, from interactive board books for toddlers to paperback graphic novels for teens to hardback novels for adults. Abridgements and adaptations have contributed to Alice's diverse audience, but the most powerful changes are due to the title's material re-representations, or art directions. Alice has evolved from Macmillan's golden Victorian blocked on cloth to Harper's inky goth girl printed on satin paper.3 Carroll conceived the title as a fairy tale, but some latter-day publications are better described as scary tales. This transformation is due, in part, to illustrations. Alice is possibly "the most widely illustrated novel in existence".4 The extraordinary variety of Alice illustrations is surpassed only by the breadth of editions in which they are published; John Tenniel's illustrations from the first publication, for example, have been republished in hundreds of editions, from mass-market paperbacks to collectible hardbacks. Accordingly, Alice is today located in such diverse publishing retail categories as "Children's Fairy & Folk Tales," "Science Fiction & Fantasy" and "Classic Literature."5 Carroll was the first to segment and sell Alice, trading on unique art directions. How did the early Alices—those published under Carroll's direction—differentiate themselves from each other? [End Page 196] This article recovers the rationales for the design and production choices that Carroll made, as art director, for the single-volume English-language Alice editions that Macmillan published in London between 1865 (year of first publication) and 1897 (year prior to Carroll's death in January 1898): • the red-cloth Alice's Adventures in Wonderland (AAIW) ([1865] 1866) (Figures 1a, 1b and 1c); • Alice's Adventures Under Ground (AAUG) (1886) (Figures 2a and 2b); • the People's Edition of AAIW (1887) (Figures 3a and 3b) and the People's Edition omnibus that combines AAIW with its sequel, Through the Looking-Glass, in one volume (1888); • The Nursery "Alice" (1890) (Figures 4a and 4b). The story remains essentially unchanged across these four editions: the first and third editions have the same body text6; the second edition is a facsimile of a draft of the AAIW manuscript; the fourth edition is a retelling of the text of the first and third editions. The similarity of these books' editorial content throws into relief their varied design and production values. The sequel to AAIW, Through the Looking-Glass (TTLG), is only peripherally included in this article—when discussing its publication in an omnibus volume with AAIW. Although TTLG is often conflated with AAIW in scholarship and popular imagination, and Carroll art directed them both, each title tells a unique story and has its own publishing history. It is AAIW that started Carroll's "career" as an art director, and it is AAIW that Carroll repackaged in many editions for many audiences. This article interrogates the ways in which Carroll's art direction contributed to his creative vision and strategic publication of a single title: Alice. "Art director" is an anachronistic title for a Victorian—it came into use in the early 1900s and continues to be used today7—but it frames a critical understanding of the lead that Carroll took in the visual and material realizations of his texts. There is a wealth of published research on Carroll and his books, but the overwhelming majority focuses on his biography and/or Alice's text.8 This article expands the horizons of...

The study of the semiotic space of literature still remains interesting and in demand, and the semiotic analysis has proved to be a rather successful method in the collection of methods of a literature teacher at school. In the article, the author proceeds from the necessity of using a complex analysis of a fiction text based to a greater extent on semiotic consideration, which includes, in addition to semiotic analysis, analysis of biographical context and partly philological analysis, in senior high schools. The author substantiates the necessity of introducing such a method in the study of modern literature, showing it on the example of complex analysis of the Evgeny Vodolazhkin’s novel "The Aviator". Thus, the aim of the study is to describe the application of the method of semiotic analysis (in combination with others) of works of fiction in the course of literature in senior high school. The relevance of the chosen topic in the novelty of the researched material: the text of the novel. Modern literature still needs a comprehensive study. The novelty of the article consists in the chosen approach to the analysis of the novel with the use of semiotic arsenal of means, as well as in the description of the application of the novel's material in the curriculum at the lessons of literature in senior high school. Using the methods of semiotic, philological and contextual analyses, the author developed a literature lesson plan for the 11th grade of a comprehensive school. This plan can be used in practice, which will allow a teacher supplement and expand the school study of modern literature by a popular new author. As a result of the analysis, it was concluded that this kind of complex analysis of modern fiction can reveal lines of interconnection and continuity with classical literature. Finding such intertextual links with both Russian classical and world literature will allow students to build a logical and coherent picture of the development of the literary process up to the modern stage. As a result of the analysis, the conclusion is made about didactic applicability of the text of the novel in the practice of teaching literature, and the novel itself is presented within the framework of the analysis as a rather complex and rich artistic work in terms of meaning, involving numerous interpretations.

Why should urban heat island researchers study history?

Engel curves describe how household expenditure on particular goods or services depends on household income. German statistician Ernst Engel (1821–1896) was the first to investigate this relationship systematically in an article published about 150 years ago. The best-known single result from the article is “Engel's law,” which states that the poorer a family is, the larger the budget share it spends on nourishment. We revisit Engel's article, including its context and the mechanics of the argument. Because the article was completed a few decades before linear regression techniques were established and income effects were incorporated into standard consumer theory, Engel was forced to develop his own approach to analyzing household expenditure patterns. We find his work contains some interesting features in juxtaposition to both the modern and classical literature. For example, Engel's way of estimating the expenditure–income relationship resembles a data-fitting technique called the “regressogram” that is nonparametric—in that no functional form is specified before the estimation. Moreover, Engel introduced a way of categorizing household expenditures in which expenditures on commodities that served the same purpose by satisfying the same underlying “want” were grouped together. This procedure enabled Engel to discuss the welfare implications of his results in terms of the Smithian notion that individual welfare is related to the satisfaction of wants. At the same time, he avoided making a priori assumptions about which specific goods were necessities, assumptions which were made by many classical economists like Adam Smith. Finally, we offer a few thoughts about some modern literature that builds on Engel's research.

The book is an attempt at a monographic approach to the problem of the reception of 17th-century Dutch painting in modern literature. However, the author deals not only with contemporary works but also with the texts of 19th-century writers and critics, most often French, who shaped the so-called myth of the Dutch Golden Age. Readers learn the historically conditioned models of perception of 17th-century Dutch painting. The original achievement is the genre key, which is a consequence of the thesis on the mediation of the 20th-century reception of Dutch Golden Age painting in 19th-century European literature and art criticism. Contemporary writers are revising the concept of realism; they cannot talk about Vermeer’s View of Delft without referring to Proust’s petit pan de mur jaune. They read still lifes through Chardin and Cézanne or revive the myth of Rembrandt – a self-portraitist who analyzed himself. Also noteworthy is the section devoted to the little Dutch masters – Willem Dyster, Pieter de Hooch, Hendrick Avercamp, Hercules Seghers and Pieter Saenredam.

Die Unterrichtspraxis/Teaching GermanEarly View FORUM Training transferable skills: Using “SPARK” as a stepping stone to career readiness, social engagement, and program relevance Anita McChesney, Corresponding Author Anita McChesney [email protected] orcid.org/0000-0002-0738-1411 Department of Classical and Modern Languages and Literatures, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas, USA Correspondence Anita McChesney, Department of Classical and Modern Languages and Literatures, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, USA. Email: [email protected]Search for more papers by this author Anita McChesney, Corresponding Author Anita McChesney [email protected] orcid.org/0000-0002-0738-1411 Department of Classical and Modern Languages and Literatures, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas, USA Correspondence Anita McChesney, Department of Classical and Modern Languages and Literatures, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, USA. Email: [email protected]Search for more papers by this author First published: 20 April 2023 https://doi.org/10.1111/tger.12229Read the full textAboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Early ViewOnline Version of Record before inclusion in an issue RelatedInformation

Reviewed by: Fictional Authors, Imaginary Audiences: Modern Chinese Literature in the Twentieth Century Paul B. Foster (bio) Bonnie S. McDougall . Fictional Authors, Imaginary Audiences: Modern Chinese Literature in the Twentieth Century. Hong Kong: Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2003. ix, 281 pp. Hardcover $35.00, ISBN 962-996-029-x. This anthology of highly polished, previously published papers directly challenges the canonized status of China's twentieth-century works, authors, and audiences. McDougall presents a consistent, singularly harsh, but simultaneously subtle and convincing argument for a critical approach to modern Chinese literature that emphasizes the demystification of the process by which authors, their works, and the modern Chinese literary field in general are constructed. Refreshingly without recourse to literary-critical jargon, McDougall methodically reveals the politics of power and institution operating in symbiosis with self-censorship and Western sinological study to obscure truths about modern Chinese literature. She demonstrates that the resulting valorization of mediocre literary products and authors is a product of the Chinese intellectual's obsession with his own marginalization—his fall from privileged social status and power in a post-civil examination China. The construction of modern Chinese literature studies thus resulted in a "fictional [canonized] author" and an "imaginary [canonized] audience" that served to buttress the tenuous legitimacy of the very producers and consumers of the new literature since the May Fourth period. This theme provides the canvas that McDougall uses as she courageously interprets the broad-ranging issues in modern Chinese literature, including its fundamental validity and direction. The book is divided into three parts. Part 1, "Authors, Audiences and Critics," examines "the role that critics and scholars in Western countries have played in the formation of the modern Chinese literary canon" (p. 8). Moreover, locating [End Page 425] the idealization and dramatization of authors' lives in the continuum of the role of "intellectual" descendent of the literati of dynastic times, McDougall makes a significant contribution to the study of modern Chinese literature by redirecting C. T. Hsia's famous "obsession with China" to demonstrate that it was not the discourse of nationalism or internationalism (the fate of China) with which intellectuals and writers were primarily concerned, but, in fact, the fate of the intellectual and his privileged role in society. McDougall's second significant contribution to the field is in directly confronting the issue of the quality of modern Chinese literature. She unmasks the phenomenon of "inferior literary texts masquerading as modern masters" (p. 24). She implies that modern Chinese literary studies needs a massive reevaluation as a field, especially given the complicity of Western sinology in the construction of imagined authors and audiences. McDougall points out "how very little still is known about Chinese writers and readers, and how unreliable or untested much of the information that we have about them is" (p. 1). Chapter 2, "Modern Chinese Literature and Its Critics," sets the scene for the latter parts of the book as McDougall systematically raises questions about the process of canonization from the May Fourth through the post-Cultural Revolution periods. She argues that canonization has not been well studied, and notes that both intended and actual audiences have been ignored. Moreover, by treating literary texts as social science documents that provide a window into the "public and private consciousness" of authors and readers, Western scholarship has been complicit in canonization by taking for granted and valorizing the "official literature." This discourse of canonization directly influences the reception of modern Chinese literature inside and outside China, and has been counterproductive to the field as a whole: "For contemporary Chinese writers, however, the lack of an enthusiastic Western response has been deeply disappointing. Since May Fourth, Chinese writers have seen themselves as contributing to world literature, and to be disregarded in this way undermines the internationalism that they strive for" (p. 37). McDougall's demystification of this century-long cycle of inbred, mutually self-invested writing and critique, moreover, demonstrates "the huge conceptual gap between Western critical methodologies and non-Western literary texts" (p. 30). She brilliantly suggests that modern Chinese literature holds the potential for advances in world literary understanding by demonstrating the necessity to "adapt Western literary theories to deal with...

Reviewed by: Translation's Forgotten History: Russian Literature, Japanese Mediation, and the Formation of Modern Korean Literature by Heekyoung Cho Kelly Y. Jeong Translation's Forgotten History: Russian Literature, Japanese Mediation, and the Formation of Modern Korean Literature by Heekyoung Cho. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center, 2016. Pp. xiv + 242. $39.95 cloth. Heekyoung Cho's Translation's Forgotten History presents a study of "the role of translation in the formation of a modern literature by examining how colonial Koreans appropriated Russian literature, through the medium of Japanese relay translations, while in the process of building their own modern literature in the early twentieth century" (p. x). It also "provides a broader East Asian perspective from which to understand the formation of modern literatures" (p. xi). The author's research suggests that "Russian literature became one element in a form of anti-imperial cosmopolitanism in East Asia" during this period (p. xii). Cho thus presents the underexplored history of localization and indigenization in the formation of modern Korean literature, in which foreign literature, ideas, and images play a pivotal role. This book is a much-needed work that fills a gap in knowledge in the study of the relationship among Russian, Japanese, and Korean modern literatures. Due to Cold War politics as well as the linguistic challenge of being familiar with all three languages, this book is the first of its kind (p. 27). Cho's book is informed by meticulous research. Its author's insights include the fact that literature is a "dynamic process of negotiating various foreign and local values" (p. 27) and that Korea's encounter with foreign texts during the formative years of its modern literature is a site where modernity, colonialism, and nationalism intersect (p. 95). Cho also effectively cites works of several Korean literary historians and theorists, connecting her own scholarship with theirs. Since Cho views literature as a process rather than a monument, it is not surprising that she critiques the pervasive amnesia about the impure origins of national literature and the negotiated and hybrid nature of national languages, as well as the erasure of translated foreign literature from mainstream national literary history. This criticism reminds the reader of several other Korean-studies monographs that focus on similar contexts to explain how postcolonial, postwar South [End Page 292] Korea's national literature is partly established through a denial and erasure of leftist and North Korean literature.1 These books also discuss ways in which translation becomes an essential element in constructing a hegemonic national literature and its history in the modern era. In her analysis, Cho borrows Naoki Sakai's concept of "the regime of translation" to explain the relationship between Japanese and Russian literatures and the formation of modern Korean literature, arguing that "national literature has inherently been comparative literature" (p. 6). Also at stake in Cho's book is the cultural politics of a subjugated Korean culture in the colonial era. Following Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, Cho claims that a "translator's 'choices' and ensuing 'differences'—and distortions—made in the translated text were ethical in a subjugated culture because indigenization itself was one way of demonstrating agency under cultural and political dominance" (p. 22). As an example, Cho notes the irony of typical "relay translations" in colonial Korea—these works are translations into Korean from Japanese, but their originals are actually Russian—and points out that this kind of translation leads to the construction of the Korean language as an "equivalent linguistic entity vis-à-vis the colonizer's language" (p. 23). Thus, colonial Korean intellectuals' process of making their own modern literature was "doubly complex" (p. 25) in a fashion typical of a colony; they took Western literature as their model but viewed Japanese literature as a kind of sieve that, ultimately, they wanted to discard. Therefore, as Cho points out, this "social context legitimizes liberal and unfaithful translation as a disruptive, if not subversive, practice, and complicates the judgment about the ethics of literal translation in colonial Korea" (p. 25). With this context in mind, she uses the term "translation" to refer to two things. First, "it denotes a broad spectrum of substantial practices and texts. It includes types...

The article analyzes the concept of “woman” in modern Russian literature (using the example of Dina Ilyinichna Rubina's novel Women`s Wind). The interest in this topic is due to the fact that female images have long occupied a central place in Russian literature. In the 21st century, ideas about the role and place of women in the modern world are changing, and in this regard, there is a transformation of female images in modern literature, cinema, and the media. The relevance of the article is explained by the need to study the popular novel by contemporary author Dina Rubina, which offers a whole gallery of expressive female images. The purpose of this article is to analyze the concept of “woman” in modern Russian literature. The object of the study is a set of artistic concepts that have been represented and interpreted in the text of the novel Women`s Wind and, thanks to the signs of which, images of women, the main characters of the novel, are created in the text. To achieve the purpose of the study, the descriptive method, the method of analyzing dictionary definitions, the method of component analysis, methodology of taking into account the associative links of a concept, as well as the comparative method were used.

Islamic law is often misunderstood as a rigid and outdated law which is non-compatible to be exercised in this modern day. This is, however, not true due to the recognition of legal reasoning, al-ijtihad, in Islamic legal tradition where Islamic law is adaptable and flexible in line with the changing of times, places and circumstances. Halal industry, particularly the animal slaughtering practices is one of the areas that experience positive developments which lead to the emergence of new practices like stunning and mechanical slaughtering. Indeed, these practices are regarded as a new phenomenon in which there the issue was not clearly discussed in the classical literatures hence needs for further clarification on the status of Shariah legal rulings, hukm, from various sources of Islamic law including ‘urf. This paper is an attempt to discuss the development of Islamic law with special reference to the application of ‘urf in halal animal slaughtering practices. In order to achieve the objective, opinions from both classical and modern literatures are examined and analyzed in order to understand the development of Islamic law in halal industry. The findings show that ‘urf is considered as the most suitable instrument in determining the legal status of modern animal slaughtering practices since it is applicable to all kinds of situations, places and times.

The issue of the "subject" is the most important factor in the distinction between classical and modern literature. The word "I" is often general and abstract in classical literature, while in contemporary literature, following modern philosophy, it is an individualized and concrete "I" or, in other words, an active subject. Perhaps the most obvious manifestation of this paradigm shift -especially in poetry -can be seen in the type of encounter with the "subject". Contemporary poetry, from its most superficial romantic facet to its most complex philosophical aspect, expresses a self-sufficient subject whose origin is human centrality. Ahmad Shamlou is one of the poets whose poetry subject is "I". This research deals with the hermeneutics of "self/subject" in his poetry using qualitative content analysis and critical reading of the collection of Shamlou's poems along with selecting indicative examples. Since this "I/self/subject" has been subjected to turmoil and transformations during his six decades of writing poetry, the theoretical framework of the discussion is also based on these developments and deals with both the philosophical subject which emphasizes individual thought and consciousness and to a subject that is a social construct. Hence, the theoretical framework of the study is based on a triangulation of Michel Foucault's discussions about the hermeneutics of the self and governing oneself and others; the theory of symbolic interactionism, which deals with the individual and social "self"; existentialism that focuses on freedom, choice, and responsibility; and ultimately Althusser's perspective on the subject i.e., subject with s (small letter) and subject with S (capital letter). "I" in Shamlou's political poetry is an ideological pseudo-subject (subject) due to his attachment to the Toudeh party, whereas in his philosophical poetry, it is the result of knowledge and awareness based on his own lived experience, and reflection on existence, human, life, and death, as the supreme subject (Subject).