ПОСТРОЕНИЕ НАГРУЗКИ В ПРОЦЕССЕ ФИЗИЧЕСКОГО ВОСПИТАНИЯ СТУДЕНТОВ СПЕЦИАЛЬНОГО УЧЕБНОГО ОТДЕЛЕНИЯ

В статье рассматриваются основные признаки, факторы и показатели утомления, которые должны учитываться при организации и проведении занятий по физической культуре со студентами специального учебного отделения. Поскольку студентам этого отделения характерны различные нарушения развития, что значительно затрудняет их двигательные возможности, освоение учебного материала программы физической культуры. Поэтому при планировании нагрузки на занятиях по физической культуре должны учитывать пол студентов специального учебного отделения, форму, характер и степень нарушения развития, наличие сопутствующих заболеваний, физическую подготовлен­ность и многие другие факторы. В связи с чем изыскание эффективных путей организации и проведения занятий по физической культуре со студентами специального учебного отделения, построение соответствующей физической нагрузки всегда находилось в центре внимания специалистов. В специальной научно-методической литературе по проблемам физического воспитания студентов подчеркивается важность изучения вопросов применения защитных средств и мобилизации резервных ресурсов при построении занятий по физическому воспитанию студентов специального учебного отделения. Дозированная нагрузка на учебных занятиях по физической культуре и дифференцированный подход предусматривают некоторые ограничения: резкие наклоны, прыжки, упражнения с отягощением, дли­тельные статические упражнения, дли­тельные мышечные напряжения и пр. По этому преподавателю физическое воспитание студентов специального учебного отделения рекомендуется пользоваться следующими внешними признаками и степенью утомления этих студентов: Цвет кожи (небольшое покраснение, значительное покраснение; резкое значительное покраснение), дыхание (учащенное; неровное учащенное дыхание; периодически насту­пающее через рот; непрерывное дыхание через рот; глубокие вдохи, отдышка), движения (покачивание тела; некоординированные движение), внимание (неточности в выполнении команда), самочувствие нет никаких жалоб; жалобы на усталость, боль в ногах, сердцебиение, отдышку; жалобы на головную боль, тошнота и рвота).

Influence of Physical Activity on Elementary School Children: Challenges and Practice

This thesis is part of the School in Motion study. School in Motion was initiated by the Norwegian government because of the political demand for more knowledge regarding possible approaches to increase adolescent physical activity. The reason for the demand was a report depicting 15-year-olds as among the most sedentary populations in Norway. This is concerning because physical activity can have a preventive function against non-communicable diseases, psychological difficulties and mental disorders. Norwegian schools are given extended responsibilities for their students’ physical and mental health. Physical activity can contribute in this purpose, therefore, finding feasible approaches to increase physical activity in school is an important research topic. The School in Motion study was a cluster randomized controlled trial involving 29 lower secondary schools in Norway. The participants were 2084 9th graders (14-15 years old) from schools located in western, south western, southern, and eastern parts of the country. The study aimed to implement two separate intervention models for increased physical activity and physical education in school, in order to evaluate their effects on physical activity, physical health, mental health, learning and learning environment. Intervention model 1 included weekly, 30 minutes of physical activity, 30 minutes of physically active academic lessons, and one additional physical education lesson. Intervention model 2 included two weekly physical activity lessons in which students were encouraged to pursue their own activity interests, in groups they formed themselves. The aims of this thesis were to elucidate different aspects of the relationship between school-based physical activity interventions, physical fitness and mental health among adolescents, and the feasibility of school-based PA interventions in lower secondary school. The data that are presented in this thesis are the basis of four separate papers. The first paper analyzed baseline data to examine the cross-sectional association between physical fitness and mental health. The results showed a small, inverse association between cardiorespiratory fitness and mental health, while no association was found between mental health and body composition or muscular strength. The second paper presents data from a qualitative study that aimed to elucidate how intervention model 2 was implemented, and what influenced the implementation. The results showed large differences in how the intervention was implemented. Specifically, two out of four investigated schools implemented the intervention adequately, one school implemented the intervention partially adequate and the last school failed at several implementation aspects. Four main factors were responsible for influencing implementation: frame factors, intervention-, participant-, and provider characteristics. The results elucidate the challenge of implementing a complex physical activity intervention in schools, i. e., complex contexts, and expecting the implementation process to be similar for the schools. The third paper examined the effect the interventions had on mental health, by using a cluster randomized controlled trial design. The results showed no intervention effects on the overall population. However, subgroup analyses indicated that intervention model 1 was beneficial for those with high levels of psychological difficulties at baseline, and both intervention models were beneficial for the immigrant subgroup. The results also indicated that intervention model 2 had a negative effect on a subscale of psychological difficulties, peer relationships, within the subgroups non-immigrant girls, and those with “borderline” psychological difficulties at baseline. The fourth paper presents associations between the one-year change in physical fitness components and mental health status. Subgroup analyses showed an inverse association between change in cardiorespiratory fitness and mental health status among boys; an inverse association between change in muscular strength and mental health status among immigrants; and an association between change in cardiorespiratory fitness and mental health among girls with high socioeconomic status. The results indicate that the associations between physical activity, physical fitness and mental health among adolescents depend on different mechanisms that are specific to certain subgroups. The findings of this thesis add nuance to a research field characterized by relatively few studies, small sample sizes, cross-sectional designs and little qualitative knowledge. In summary, this thesis suggests that improving cardiorespiratory fitness can be beneficial for mental health promotion among adolescent boys; and that improving muscular strength can be beneficial for mental health promotion among adolescent immigrants. Moreover, school-based PA programs can be useful for mental health promotion among adolescents with high levels of psychological difficulties and among adolescent immigrants. Regarding the implementation of physical activity programs in schools, this is feasible. However, a successful implementation depends to a large degree on schools’ facilities and frame factors, thus, the physical activity programs should have flexible designs to secure an optimal fit in each individual school. The new Core curriculum in Norway for primary and secondary education specifies that physical and mental health is to be an important interdisciplinary topic in school. The knowledge generated through this thesis can contribute to the development of this interdisciplinary topic, and to the ongoing discussion about the role of physical activity and mental health in school.

Aim: In this paper, we examine how ambidextrous organisational practices can be used to advance the management of public basic schools in accepting behaviours that can improve physical activities of children.
 Methodology: Drawing on extant literature and desk review of policy documents including school reports, we examine physical activities in public basic schools in Ghana and then explore three key developmental systems – managerial responsiveness, healthcare variation and educational development and highlight four areas from these systems; organisational processes, infrastructure development, human resource improvements, and stakeholder collaboration where policy makers can focus their efforts to improving physical activity in school children in Ghana.
 Findings: The findings demonstrate a seeming absence of structures for physical activity in public basic schools in Ghana - presenting severe consequences, especially for the healthy growth of children, proper integration of children into society, learning processes, and developing talents for future sporting activities in general. Again, the analysis shows that the Ghana Education Service’s implementation guidelines for physical activity in public basic schools are not yielding the needed results - thus provoking policy dialogues in managerial practices for effective implementation of those guidelines. Next, we propose the promotion of physical activity in public basic schools in Ghana through sustainable and pragmatic approaches drawing from ambidextrous managerial practices to strengthen organisational capacity in the schools for improvements in movement behaviours, lifestyle changes, active learning, and physical activity levels of school children.
 Conclusion: Practical approaches are needed to enhance the physical activity for children and this requires the initiation of active schools’ programme in public basic schools – and clearly learning from best practices in the last decades, examples from other countries provide a really useful approach in the years ahead.

BackgroundThere is little evidence on the tracking of physical activity during school hours. In addition, tracking physical activity in schools provides important evidence for understanding children’s physical activity and conducting intervention studies. Therefore, this study examined longitudinal changes and tracking of in-school physical activity in primary school children.MethodsIn this study, physical activity was investigated longitudinally in primary school children for 4 years. The baseline participants consisted of 103 second-grade students (7–8 years old) who participated. Step counts and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) in school and during first recess and lunch/second recess were examined using an accelerometer (Kenz Lifecorder GS 4-second version; Suzuken Co. Ltd, Nagoya, Japan).ResultsAfter excluding missing data (moving school; n = 8, physical activity; n = 8), 87 (43 boys and 44 girls) of whom were included in the final analysis. Step counts and MVPA during school and physical education in boys did not decrease across the school years. By contrast, in girls, step counts during school did not decrease across the school years, however MVPA did decrease. In addition, for both sexes, step counts and MVPA during first recess decrease across the school years. During lunch/second recess, only step counts decrease across the school years in both sexes. In addition, the tracking coefficients for step counts and MVPA for boys in school and during first recess and lunch/second recess were found across many school years. Contrarily, girls had fewer significant tracking coefficients between school years than boys. There were also few significant tracking coefficients between grades for physical education step counts and MVPA for both boys and girls.ConclusionsOur results suggested that in-school step counts for both boys and girls does not decrease across the school years. However, given that girls demonstrated reduced levels of in-school MVPA across the school years, it is important to promote strategies to increase MVPA in this group.

PurposeA more dynamic school day that includes less sitting and more physical activity throughout the day may support health in primary school children. In this mixed methodologies study, we assessed which physical activity possibilities are incorporated in the school policies of Dutch primary schools and if this translates into more physical activity in pupils.MethodsSeven primary schools were included in the study. The head teachers completed a questionnaire on the incorporation of physical activity in the school policy. Physical activity policy was assessed for physical education, physical activity during breaks, scheduling of physical activity during lessons, after school physical activity and active transport to school. In each school, actual physical activity was objectively measured using accelerometers in pupils in two classes and planning and logging of PA by teachers.ResultsWe will assess the impact of the school policy on physical activity in pupils using logistic regression. We will assess the impact of the several school policies on total physical activity in pupils, and on the three (light, moderate and high) modalities of physical activity.ConclusionThe results of this study will give us more insight in the current role of physical activity in Dutch primary schools. The potential impact of the school policy on physical activity levels in pupils can be used as a starting point for a more integral dynamic school day approach.Support/Funding SourceThis study was partially funded by “Stichting Westelijke Tuinsteden’.

Physical Activity Measures in the Healthy Communities Study.

BackgroundThe school has been identified as a key arena for physical activity promotion for young people. Effective change of physical activity behaviour requires identification of consistent and modifiable correlates. The study explores students' interests in school physical activity and facilities in the school environment and examines their associations with students' participation in physical activity during recess and their cross-level interaction effect.MethodsThis cross-sectional study was based on a national representative sample of Norwegian secondary schools and grade 8 students who participated in the Health Behaviour in School-aged Children (HBSC) 2005/06 study. The final sample comprised 68 schools and 1347 students. Physical environment characteristics were assessed through questionnaires completed by the principals, and students' physical activity and interests in physical activity were assessed through student self-completion questionnaires.ResultsMost students were interested in more opportunities for physical activity in school. Multilevel logistic regression models demonstrated that students attending schools with many facilities had 4.49 times (95% Confidence Interval (CI) = 1.93–10.44) higher odds of being physically active compared to students in schools with fewer facilities when adjusting for socio-economic status, sex and interests in school physical activity. Also open fields (Odds Ratio (OR) = 4.31, 95% CI = 1.65–11.28), outdoor obstacle course (OR = 1.78, 95% CI = 1.32–2.40), playground equipment (OR = 1.73, 95% CI = 1.24–2.42) and room with cardio and weightlifting equipment (OR = 1.58, 95%CI = 1.18–2.10) were associated with increased participation in physical activity. Both students' overall interests and the physical facilitation of the school environment significantly contributed to the prediction of recess physical activity. The interaction term demonstrated that students' interests might moderate the effect of facilities on recess physical activity.ConclusionThe findings support the use of an ecological approach and multilevel analyses in the investigation of correlates of physical activity that allows for a broader understanding of the influence of and interaction between factors at multiple levels on physical activity behaviour. In the promotion of physical activity in lower secondary schools, the study suggests that programmes should include a focus on environmental facilitation and incorporate strategies to increase students' interests for school physical activity.

PurposeFor children with blindness and visual impairment (BVI) of all ages, disability sport and/or regular Physical Activity (PA) are deemed beneficial, promoting physical and mental health as well as increasing wellbeing and life satisfaction. In this regard, Physical Education (PE) serves as a foundation to regular and lifelong participation in PA, mainstream and/or disability sport. Research points towards manifold participation barriers for children with BVI in PE, which so far have mainly been investigated in inclusive settings and from the perspectives of sighted parents, teachers and peers. Consequently, people with BVI frequently consider PE a missed opportunity for lifelong PA. As transitioning from general to special schooling deems the only alternative to continue their education, questions arise in how far and in which ways specialized schools manage to accommodate their needs in PE. To address these gaps in literature, we investigated BVI students' perceived opportunities and barriers to participation in PE within a specialized school setting and their imaginations for possible (digital) improvements and solutions.Materials and methodsWithin the framework of Inclusive and Youth Participatory Action Research, we adopted the Mosaic Approach to investigate a sample of 19 students aged 14–20 at lower and upper secondary level in a specialized school in Austria. Data material included audio-recordings of interviews, student-guided school tours, photographs of significant places and objects and field protocols. The analysis was conducted with Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis.Results and conclusionThrough the analysis, we identified three themes. The data material firstly revealed the complex intricacies of how PE teachers can act as facilitators and gatekeepers to autonomous PA. Secondly, material norms function not only as barriers to participation even in a specialized school setting, but also constitute the basis for social hierarchies between students with various degrees of visual impairment. Thirdly, students imagined manifold digital solutions to enhance participation derived from their perceived barriers. The findings contribute to amplifying BVI individuals' voices and provide revealing insights in how participation in PA is enabled and prohibited for students with BVI which can not only help to improve specialized but also inclusive settings.

There is an association between physical activity and both health and academic performance. However, there is still a lack of consensus on how to engage adolescents in physical activity interventions in secondary schools. One approach to better understand the activities and strategies supporting effective implementation is to involve school staff and adolescents in the early stages of planning and preparing for interventions. Therefore, the aim of this study is to explore how multiple stakeholders, including school staff, students, and experts, perceive the barriers and facilitators for implementing a school-based intervention that extends the school day with additional physical activity in Sweden. This inductive explorative qualitative study involved 16 participants. Three focus groups with school staff, including principals (n = 3), teachers (n = 6), and students (n = 4), and three interviews with experts were conducted. The planned intervention and its components were presented to the participants in the focus group and interviews to discuss them based on their previous experiences and thoughts of implementing physical activities or health promotion programmes in their schools or with adolescents. Data were analysed using qualitative content analysis. Three categories emerged: (1) "types of activities offered", highlighting the importance of designing activities that are fun, inclusive and unusual; (2) "integration of the activities into school curriculum" to promote sustainability of the intervention and incorporate physical activity throughout the school day and across school subjects, and (3) "Management support and funding" referring to the funded time and facilities that teachers leading the activities need to facilitate implementation. Before implementing extra physical activity in a school setting, it is important to understand what activities enhance students' motivation and the type of support teachers need from the school principal and administration. This includes funding for teachers' time, appropriate scheduling of the activities, and access to facilities.

We explored the development trajectories of interpersonal security among early adolescents and their impact on physical activities in school and examined the mediating effect of control beliefs. A whole-year, three-stage follow-up investigation of 2,180 junior high school students (45.32% boys; age, 11.88 ± 1.11 years) from a single province in China was conducted. For early adolescents, the ideal growth mixture model of the three classifications of interpersonal security was the optimal model (AIC = 14472.50, BIC = 14453.40, aBIC = 14412.11, Entropy = 0.78; LMR: p = 0.00, BLRT: p = 0.00). When comparing the effects of different development trajectories of interpersonal security on early adolescents' physical activities in school (T3), the relative total influential effects of the high-elevated and medium-sustained groups were 0.22 and 0.26 greater than those of the low-decreasing group. Furthermore, the relative mediating effects of control beliefs were all significant, revealing that, in the high-elevated and medium-sustained groups, and by the mediating effect of controlling beliefs, interpersonal security affected early adolescents' physical activities in school (T3), respectively (p < 0.01). The better the development trajectory of interpersonal security, the easier it is to enhance early adolescents' control beliefs and their engagement with physical activities in school. Educators and parents should pay more attention to the cultivation of early adolescents' social adaptability and interpersonal communication skills.

Objectives. Non-communicable diseases and limited participation in school physical education have become increasing concerns in South Africa. In response to these concerns, a schoolbased physical activity intervention, Healthnutz, was implemented in three primary schools in Alexandra Township, Johannesburg. Evaluation of Healthnutz included assessing its feasibility and acceptability, and short-term changes in learners’ physical fitness, knowledge and attitudes. Methods. To assess feasibility and acceptability, a situational analysis and focus groups with teachers and programme monitors were conducted. Pre-post fitness testing (3-month interval) was conducted with learners, and a questionnaire assessed changes in learners’ knowledge, attitudes, self-efficacy, and perceived barriers to physical activity, in control and intervention schools. Results. At implementation, teachers identified the need for more physical activity in the school environment and were positive about Healthnutz. Follow-up focus group discussions suggested that it was positively impacting teachers, learners and the school in general. Scores for sit and reach (p&lt;0.001), sit ups (p&lt;0.02) and shuttle run (p&lt;0.0001) improved significantly in intervention but not control schools. A significant decrease was observed in learners’ perceived external barriers to physical activity (p&lt;0.0001) along with a positive change in learners’ self-efficacy for physical activity (p&lt;0.05). Conclusions. Healthnutz raised awareness of the importance of physical activity in intervention schools. Findings indicate that even limited exposure to a physical activity intervention can lead to a significant improvement in aspects of learners’ fitness, knowledge, attitudes and perceptions regarding physical activity. Furthermore, training and support of teachers needs to be nonjudgemental and empowering.

BackgroundSports-based youth development (SBYD) programs provide an inclusive, supportive environment for promoting physical activity as well as nurturing the development of life skills which, in combination, promote physical, mental, and emotional health in youth. The Up2Us Sports SBYD program was implemented in six schools in New Orleans, Louisiana in 2020–2022, where near-peer coaches from the community were placed in schools and present throughout the school day. The intervention period straddled the COVID-19 pandemic as well as extreme weather events, modifying program delivery.Process/methodsAn exploratory case study was conducted to understand participant experience amid program disruptions and modifications, as well as their perceptions of program impact on physical activity and health. Interviews with coaches (n = 7), focus groups with youth (n = 14) and program observation data were triangulated to provide a description of the case.ResultsThe major theme that emerged from the case study was the centrality of the near-peer mentorship relationships between coaches and youth. Participants believed near-peer relationships facilitated life skill development and increased opportunity for physical activity in schools, but pressures on coaches’ time and external challenges in the community were limiting factors to the extent of program impact.ConclusionThis community case study demonstrates the potential role for near-peer mentors in influencing the health and wellbeing of youth from under-resourced communities and highlights the opportunity for school-based SBYD programming to provide youth with a consistent source of both relational and physical activity support.

Physical activity (PA) promotion and sedentary behaviour (SB) reduction in childhood are important as PA and SB are independently associated with individual and clustered cardiometabolic risk factors. Primary schools are a key setting for child PA promotion, yet even with the provision of PA opportunities and the supporting role of physical education (PE) co-ordinators, few school-based United Kingdom (UK) PA interventions have been effective. While various reasons for this exist, it is suggested that many-school based PA interventions skip the critical development and feasibility/piloting stages of multi-component intervention design. Consequently, the overarching aims of the thesis were to design, develop, implement and evaluate a multi-component primary school-based PA intervention. Study one used interviews to explore the barriers and facilitators of children’s school-based PA from the perspective of headteachers, PE-coordinators and a deputy headteacher. At an organisational level headteachers were the predominant driving force in the promotion of PA opportunities, yet institutional barriers including low priority for PA and PE were perceived to negate delivery. At an interpersonal level, strategies to increase the delivery of school-based PA were developed, however poor teacher-coach relationships and significant others reduced PA promotion opportunities. Child PA was further negated through intrapersonal factors, including lack of PE-specific teacher training and varying teacher interest in PA and sport. To increase primary school children’s school-based PA, barriers and facilitators at the organisational, interpersonal and intrapersonal level must be considered and targeted, and researchers and schools should work in partnership to develop future interventions. Study two used focus groups to investigate children’s perceptions of factors that influence PE enjoyment, and interpreted findings in the context of self-determination theory (SDT) and the promotion of autonomous motivation. Factors reported to influence children’s perceived PE enjoyment included 1) individual preferences, 2) peer behaviour, 3) instructor behaviour. PE instructors and peers are important in creating an environment that supports children’s psychological needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness, which influence PE enjoyment. To consistently provide children with enjoyable PE lessons, primary schools are advised to support the ongoing development of generalist teachers and facilitate better working relationships between generalist teachers and specialist coaches. SDT can be used by instructors to guide practice that enhances children’s enjoyment of PE. Study three used school educator’ experiences and perspectives to refine and justify a proposed multi-component primary school-based PA intervention. Focus group and interview data indicated that for the proposed and other health-based interventions, acceptance into schools and consideration of how to increase educator buy-in is essential. Further, for educators to feel confident, comfortable and motivated to deliver the proposed intervention, it appears important to support school educators’ understanding of the proposed intervention and its impact on pupil outcomes, reduce possible training fears, enhance delivery competence and confidence, and provide easy to implement resources and support frameworks that encourage sustainable delivery. Study four assessed the acceptability and feasibility of a classroom-based SDT intervention to increase teacher’s motivation orientation to facilitate PA throughout the school day. Findings indicated the four-week intervention was acceptable and feasible to deliver in the school environment. Teacher response and recruitment rates were high (100%) possibly to due to head teacher commitment to the intervention. For children however, recruit rates were low and attrition from participants was relatively high. Qualitative findings suggested that for children of all ages to engage in the resources, it is desirable for resources to be developed to support children’s psychological needs (i.e. provide optimal challenge). Furthermore, there was evidence that the training increased teacher’s intrinsic motivation to implement and deliver the resource. Larger trials are needed to evaluate the impact of classroom PA lessons on teacher and student outcomes. The thesis highlights the importance of stakeholder buy-in from headteachers, teachers and pupils if school-based PA programs are to be successful. The results highlight the importance of targeting barriers to PA implementation at all levels of the socio-ecological model. Schools provide an important target setting to increase children’s PA and staff, when appropriately trained, are able to facilitate the delivery of school-based PA. Training teachers in a need-supportive way and providing them with interpersonal strategies to increase children’s PA motivation appears to be an important avenue for further investigation. The findings support evidence for developing interventions as guided by the MRC framework. This is important as this process not only calls for important formative work to take place before intervention implementation, but for researchers to work alongside school educators and pupils to ensure what is being designed is appropriate and fits within the needs of the schools.

Physical Education, Exercise, Fitness and Sports: Early PM&R Leaders Build a Strong Foundation