Способы перевода историзмов с русского языка на английский язык: сравнительно-сопоставительный анализ

BackgroundEating disorders (EDs) emerge most often in adolescent girls. While the basic neural and psychiatric mechanisms of ED development remain unknown, their incidence has increased with sociocultural modernization. To determine what aspects of modern culture are related to EDs, we examined the relationship between predisposition to EDs and interest in several modern cultural factors among young female university students in Bangladesh.MethodsA cross-sectional study was conducted in a population of 196 female students aged 18–29 years in a university in Bangladesh. Their predisposition to EDs was examined using the Eating Attitudes Test-26 (EAT-26), and their interest in modern culture was evaluated by grading interest in fashionable clothes, Indian TV shows/serials, luxury food and social network activities, and by examining involvement in cultural activities such as playing, dancing, parties and singing. The relationship between predisposition to EDs and interest in modern culture was then examined. The relation between EAT-26 score and body mass index (BMI) was also examined.ResultsThe EAT-26 revealed that 37% of the participants were at risk of developing an ED. Correlation analyses showed that a high EAT-26 score was correlated with a high interest in fashionable clothes and Indian TV shows/serials, but not with a high interest in luxury food or social network activities, or involvement in cultural activities, such as playing, dancing, parties and singing. Further, EAT-26 questions in the dieting category and oral control category, but not the bulimia and food preoccupation category, were correlated with interest in cultural factors. EAT-26 score showed no significant correlation with BMI.ConclusionsThe results of this study indicate that the risk of EDs is related to an interest in several facets of modern culture. Monitoring the cultural interests of adolescent females, who are continually exposed to modern culture and highly susceptible to EDs, will contribute to the prevention of EDs.

The perceived lack and invisibility of translation and translators in national literary histories has been an important motive behind writing translation histories of nation-states or national cultures. National translation traditions have been dealt with in encyclopediasencyclopaedias and handbooks, book-length studies have been devoted to the topic, and entire projects have been designed and carried out to map translation and transfer flows between nation-states and study the impact of translation on national literatures and languages. It is, however, difficult to determine what ‘national’ means in translation history writing and what a national translation history should or could be like. Is it simply the history of translation in a nation-state? Is it a history where in which the central focus is on the role of translations in nation-building? O or a history which that subscribes to a national(istic) agenda, overtly or covertly? This chapter aims at studying projects preliminarily called here national translation histories. The focus is on their coverage, aims, and starting points, and the translation history of Finland is discussed as a case study. The word ‘national’ is used in a rather wide sense as shorthand for translation histories covering entire nation-states or other comparable (sometimes smaller or larger) areas.

The article discusses the problem of the formation of coordinate trilingualism basics – the type of proficiency in three languages (native and two foreign ones), when their systems coexist in the individual’s mind in parallel, and interlanguage mixing is minimized, and, as a result, the speech in three languages is correct. Based on the research of Russian and foreign scientists on the peculiarities of trilingualism thinking, the authors confirm that the formation of artificial (educational) trilingualism when teaching two foreign languages in educational institutions, in particular at universities, requires a special approach. Considering that the native language has a significant impact on the process of learning foreign languages, and the study of a second foreign language proceeds under the influence of the previously studied first foreign language, the authors focus on a consciously comparative method of co-learning languages, which minimizes negative interlanguage interference that causes errors in speech and strengthens positive interlanguage interference that simplifies language acquisition based on the constant comparison of the phenomena of the native and studied foreign languages on the lexical, morphological, and syntactic levels. According to the authors, a special role in the formation of the foundations of coordinate trilingualism is played by the development of such mechanisms of students’ speech activity as the mechanism of installation, the mechanism of interlanguage comparison, the mechanism of association, and the mechanism of interlanguage transfer. The installation mechanism allows one to rely on information already existing in the individual’s mind about the subject and transfer this experience to the development of new material. Constant comparison of the phenomena of native and studied foreign languages at the lexical, morphological, syntactic levels allows one to see the similarities and differences between the phenomena of the native and studied foreign languages. Association, in turn, helps to create connections between phenomena and see analogies with what is already known when learning something new. Interlingual transfer promotes the use of skills developed in the native language when mastering other languages. The theoretical understanding of the problem and the analysis of the results of the experimental training made it possible to determine the necessary conditions for the formation of coordinate trilingualism basics in the process of mastering foreign languages. This is, first of all, a constant comparison of phenomena of native and studied foreign cultures at various levels, comparison of concepts (meanings) of native and foreign languages, systematic work on interlingual interference through special exercises aimed at developing the above-mentioned speech mechanisms, in practical classes in foreign languages.

<i>The Oxford History of Literary Translation in English. Vol. 4: 1790–1900</i>. Edited by <i>Peter France</i> and <i> Kenneth Haynes</i>. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2006. Pp. xvi+595.

The article analyzes the actual problems of the methodology of professional education in the humanities field of knowledge, in particular, the Surgut dialect of the Khanty language in Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug-Yugra. In modern vocational education, the study of native language becomes an integral part of national culture, which absorbs history, spiritual values, moral norms and models of speech etiquette. That is why it is important to preserve the native language of each ethnic group. There is an urgent need for the socialization and development of the student's personality as a subject of ethnicity and as a citizen of the Russian Federation. Preservation and development of native languages and traditional culture of indigenous peoples of the North is one of the state tasks facing Russia and Yugra as a subject of the Federation at the present stage. The absence of the uniform approved alphabet on the Khanty language and the educational-methodical complexes recommended by the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation does not allow studying a native (Khanty) language in vocational education. We believe that it is unacceptable to study the subjects Native Language and Native Literature (subject area Native (Khanty) Language and Literature) at the expense of the academic time allocated by the educational organization within the framework of extracurricular activities and educational work. Hence, there is a need to develop the content and methodological organization of the educational process of the Native Language discipline at vocational and specialized secondary educational institutions and universities, as well as for the course training in Khanty-Mansiysk Autonomous Okrug-Yugra. Native language serves not only as a means of communication and cognition of the surrounding reality, but also as a means of recording, preserving national and cultural traditions and introducing them to future generations. That is why the quality of education of the native (Khanty) language at professional institutions in general depends on the quality of education of the modern generation of indigenous peoples of the North of the Russian Federation. We believe that the improvement of skills and development of abilities in the subject Native language will be successful if we implement an effective methodological system based on integration of phonetic, word-formation, lexical, grammatical and syntactical levels of Khanty language.

Language policy is an essential part of the state national policy. It is focused on regulating public relations in three main directions: the use of the languages of the peoples of Russia in order to ensure their preservation and development, the formation of a set of measures that promote the use of the state language of the Russian Federation in official spheres of communication and expand its use in interpersonal informal communication (which is not regulated by law), ensuring guarantees for the study of the native language by its native speakers and popularization of the use of the national (native) language in the fields of education, creativity, and science. The implementation of language policy involves taking into account the plurality of identity, including cultural identity, linguistic identity, which can be considered, under certain conditions, not independently, but as elements of civic identity. The article examines the main directions of language policy, taking into account the combination of individual and collective interests in the fields of language and culture, which contributes to the development of both national languages and cultures and all-Russian symbols — the state language and all-Russian culture. The heterogeneous nature of the legislation of the subjects of the Russian Federation in the field of language policy implementation is emphasized. The directions of improving legislative regulation in order to ensure ethnocultural and linguistic diversity, the development of guarantees for the protection of national languages, and the improvement of the mechanism for the use of languages with different legal status are proposed. The dialectical method of scientific cognition aimed at the study of legal phenomena and processes in their interrelation and systemic unity, and other general scientific methods (analysis, synthesis, generalization) are used. Conclusion. Language policy in the interests of maintaining the cultural and national identity of Russian citizens requires taking into account at least two factors in its formation: the need to preserve and protect national culture and language as the basis for the formation of national identity, and strengthening the all-Russian civic identity, which allows a Russian citizen to recognize himself as a Russian. Its principles include the protection of the rights of Russian citizens in the field of culture and language, the promotion and preservation of national languages and cultures of each people of Russia, the adaptation of migrants to the language and culture of the host community, the protection of the linguistic rights of compatriots abroad, the protection of the state language as the main element of the all-Russian civil identity.

В современных лингвистических исследованиях особое внимание уделяется не только вопросам функционирования языков больших лингвосоциумов, но и наблюдается обращение к языкам и диалектам малых народностей, что связано с озабоченностью их возможной утраты в результате усиления давления глобальных языков, обслуживающих надрегиональную коммуникацию. В настоящей работе впервые описывается языковое сообщество немцев Крыма, которое также подвергалось языковой ассимиляции. Изучение языковой ситуации в Крыму свидетельствует о том, что уцелевшие потомки крымских немцев ради самосохранения фактически утратили свою немецкую идентичность и практически ассимилировались в южнороссийский этнос. Попытки поддержания немецких этнических традиций и обычаев еще не являются свидетельством существования языка как функционирующего средства коммуникации. Для доказательства этого обстоятельства требуется более широкое документирование истории и сведений о немецком языке этого региона, пока для этого еще существуют возможности. Таким образом, целью данной работы является анализ немецкой языковой идентичности с точки зрения исследования лингвокультурных маркеров, а именно истории этноса, вопросов вероисповедания, культуры и сферы использования родного языка. Необходимо отметить, что детальное исследование немецких колоний Крыма началось по инициативе профессора В.М. Жирмунского в 1920х годах XX века. Все процессы развития немецкого языка как средства общения немецкого населения в СССР и изучение этих процессов прервались в конце 30хгодов прошлого века в связи с принудительным переселением крымских немцев в спецпоселения трудармии. Все это разрывало межличностные, семейные, хозяйственные, культурные связи. В результате образование и культура были разрушены. На их место пришла религия как компенсация культурнообразовательных ценностей. Все это имело следствием сохранение старшим поколением единственного культурного наследия фольклора в виде народных песен, сказок, стихов. Однако после потрясений ХХго века систематизация культурного наследия немцев Крыма является важной, но трудно выполнимой задачей. До 90х годов прошлого столетия культура немецких переселенцев не была даже представлена в этнографическом музее народов Крыма. Для восполнения этого пробела требуется не только сбор сохранившихся артефактов, но и их реконструкция на основе имеющихся лингвистических данных, прежде всего, с помощью результатов диалектологических экспедиций В.М. Жирмунского. Данная статья может быть интересна исследователям в области социолингвистики, немецкой островной диалектологии. In modern linguistic studies, special attention is paid not only to the functioning of the languages of large linguistic communities, but also there is an appeal to the languages and dialects of small nationalities, which is associated with concern about their possible loss as a result of increasing pressure of global languages serving supraregional communication. This paper for the first time describes the language community of the Crimean Germans, which was also subjected to language assimilation. The study of the language situation in Crimea shows that the surviving descendants of the Crimean Germans for the sake of selfpreservation actually lost their German identity and practically assimilated into the South Russian ethnic group. Attempts to maintain German ethnic traditions and customs are not yet evidence of the existence of language as a functioning means of communication. To prove this, greater documentation of the history and knowledge of the German language of the region is required while opportunities still exist. Thus, the aim of this work is to analyze the German language identity from the point of view of the study of linguistic and cultural markers, namely the history of the ethnos, issues of religion, culture and the sphere of use of the native language. It should be noted that a detailed study of the German colonies of the Crimea began on the initiative of professor V. M. Zhirmunsky in the 1920s of the XX century. All the processes of development of the German language as a means of communication of the German population in the USSR and the study of these processes were interrupted in the late 30s of the last century in connection with the forced resettlement of Crimean Germans in special settlements of the labor army. All this severed interpersonal, family, economic, cultural ties. As a result, education and culture were destroyed. In their place came religion as a compensation for cultural and educational values. All this resulted in the preservation of the older generation of the only cultural heritagefolklore in the form of folk songs, fairy tales, poems. However, after the upheavals of the twentieth century, the systematization of the cultural heritage of the Germans of the Crimea is an important but difficult task. Until the 90s of the last century, the culture of German immigrants was not even represented in the ethnographic Museum of the peoples of the Crimea. To fill this gap it is required not only the collection of preserved artifacts, but also their reconstruction on the basis of available linguistic data, primarily through the results of dialectological expeditions V. M. Zhirmunsky. This article may be of interest to researchers in the field of sociolinguistics, German island dialectology.

There is little doubt that Translating the Perception of Text: Literary Translation and Phenomenology will appeal more to scholars in literary studies than it will to translation scholars in general. This is presumably not something to which Clive Scott would object. He narrows the scope to literary translation in the subtitle, and the examples of translation discussed in the book are all literary-poetic. Throughout the book he draws on examples of translation of French poetry, which is his area of expertise (Apollinaire, Baudelaire, Mallarmé). The core theoretical literature for this volume will also primarily be familiar to colleagues in literary studies. The most obvious example is Merleau-Ponty, whose thought forms the backdrop and frame of the entire work, but one might also cite Barthes, Gadamer, Glissant, and Richard.In Translating the Perception of Text, Scott presents a theory and practice of translation that falls very much into what French (literary) translation theorists would call a “prospective” theory of translation. His theory emerges from the experience of translation practice; it is concerned with a literary-poetic practice; and it is essentially an interrogative act that does not start from the assumption that translation is communication. The main aim of Translating the Perception of Text is to answer a question that Scott asks on the very first page: “how should I handle language in such a way that the experience of (reading) the source text (ST) can emerge?” (1). The real achievement of this volume, I think, is that it pushes for an overhaul of current understanding of the task of the (literary) translator. Even readers and translators who reject some of his individual claims and particular ideas will find that the thrust of the work as a whole leaves a lasting impression. If all this does is serve to remind the translator not to translate as would a machine (word for word, from one language to another, searching for sameness), this is still a valuable contribution.The volume starts with an introduction and is then divided into two parts: “Part I: Merleau-Ponty's Phenomenology of Language” and “Part II: Literary Translation as Phenomenology.” In the introduction, Scott touches on some tropes of contemporary translation theory, including the move away from the context of national standard languages, a recognition of multilingualism in both source and target texts, and the conception of translation as potentiality. At the same time, he has some very interesting ideas about what translation should be. For example, he insists here and elsewhere in the book that translations are not written for those with no access to the source language or source text (15–17), and he also argues that it is “translation's business to translate langue into langage” (10). We see an example of how this would work later in the book, in a discussion of the Zukofskys' translations of Catullus: “We begin to understand how the translator can begin to work towards the signifier of the source text, rather than towards its signified, and in so doing multiply the Englishes present in the text, in terms both of history and register” (100). Part I contains just one chapter (“Merleau-Ponty: Language, Painting and Translation”), in which Scott engages with the most relevant parts of Merleau-Ponty's writing for his own work on translation. This chapter is a necessary set-up for the rest of the book, but as such it is probably the least engaging for those interested in translation.Part II, on “Literary Translation as Phenomenology,” contains five chapters, which examine in turn “Overwriting and the Overwritten Text,” “Listening and Speaking: Sounds,” “Listening and Speaking: Rhythm,” “Writing and Speaking,” and “Translating the Time and Space of Languages.” These are the chapters that will be of most interest to the scholar and that I think will prove most inspiring to translators. Their titles alone reflect several key themes in Scott's translatory thought. The most obvious of these is the idea that translation responds to the reader's own synesthetic experience of the source text by translating toward other, or multiple, levels. Scott's text comes alive in these chapters because he is able to work simultaneously with the large theoretical toolbox he has set up, but also on translation itself. It is worth noting that it is not just phenomenology that informs his work. His interest in the materiality of language means that technical texts from linguistics provide him at times with analytical tools and terminology to discuss particular translation choices. This is done generally successfully, such as when he compares the formal properties of elle rougit and she blushed (63-4), but a linguist might question his selection of theoretical texts because it feels at times somewhat haphazard. Unsurprisingly, Scott is most insightful when reading his own translations, which often go through multiple versions in each discussion. This is not just because more abstract ideas become clearer through exemplification, but also because his conception of translation as “translationwork”—“the textual equivalent of the Pompidou Centre” (108)—rests on this process of opening up and transforming.To say that Translating the Perception of Text will appeal more to literary scholars than it will to translation scholars is not to say that translation scholars should not read this work. In fact, they will get a lot out of Scott's book if they can get past the particularity of this style of literary-theoretic writing. His own formal choices might feel particularly “foreignizing” unless they are understood to be reinforcing his argument; this includes his use of diagrams, tables, doodles, phonetic symbols, and the uneven use of abbreviations which might at first look like bad copyediting. Similarly, they will need to accept the significance he accords to certain translation choices, such as his fondness for the use of ▲ (104–5, 119–20). Finally, there are a number of unanswered questions that translation scholars are left to answer for themselves. This includes, crucially, how Scott's conception of translation really relates to imitation, and also what would happen if we tried to apply his theory and practice in a domain other than the literary-poetic.

The article covers significance of cultural and educational events for development of the bilingual environment; gives definitions of the terms “bilingualism”, “bilingual educational environment” and “indigenous / small peoples”. The relevance of studying this issue is in changing approaches from 2017 in teaching national languages in bilingual and multilingual regions of the country, in changing the number of hours in teaching in native (national) languages in a secondary school, in taking into account the national-regional component in the education system of a multinational state. The subject of the research is rapidly disappearing ethnic groups and their languages according to the classification of languages of UNESCO. The article emphasizes the importance of preserving and promoting national languages and cultures for establishing intercultural dialogue and peaceful coexistence of ethnic groups in a multinational state. The purpose of the article is to identify and draw attention to the problem of disappearance of national languages and cultures through a set of measures in the field of culture, science, education. Research methods: study of literature on the research topic, analysis of educational programs and curricula, a comparative analysis method for describing the status of the languages. Results. In the study, we came to the conclusion that the availability of bilingual textbooks and teaching aids with assignments built on national-Russian bilingualism, the organization of various kinds of bilingual events and their popularization in the media will help to maintain a viable level of national languages and cultures of indigenous peoples in the Russian Federation.

The article is devoted to the formation and education of a bi(poly)lingual personality as a social need of modern society. The authors pay special attention to the statistical data of recent years, illustrating the reduction in the number of students studying in their native language in schools in Tuva and Bashkortostan. A sociolinguistic model of the languages functioning in the educational sphere of republics, a characteristic feature of which is multilingualism, is proposed. The authors conclude about the scientific and methodological improvement of language teaching in secondary education: linguodidactic methods and techniques aimed at teaching schoolchildren should help them master the fluency of speech skills in their native language in interaction. One of the effective measures is the organization of multilingual schools, which provide for the creation of a motivating educational environment, the preservation of the national identity, language and residents culture of multi-ethnic regions. Educational institutions of this type need to provide favorable conditions for the multilingual development of creatively developed students who are competitive in various types of activities. As an example, the article describes the experience of a number of multilingual multidisciplinary schools in the Republic of Bashkortostan. In particular, the implementation of this educational model is carried out in two directions: language and information technology. The first direction involves in-depth study of Russian, native and English languages; organization of school subject Olympiads in native and English languages; preparation for international exams in English; organization of language camps. The next direction is based on the study of robotics, programming, 3D modeling, etc. In addition, the authors talk about the need for a well-thought incentive system in teaching the native language, namely a “social order” for a language, according to which a person chooses a means of communication that most contributes to his socialization.

Introduction: Beyond the Anglophone—Comparative South Asian Literatures

This collection considers key issues arising from the use of Medieval Latin in Britain from the 6th to 16th centuries. Although in this period Anglo-Latin was not the native language of its users, it was nevertheless used extensively for a wide variety of functions from religion, literature, and philosophy to record-keeping and correspondence. It existed alongside a number of everyday native spoken languages, including English, Anglo-Norman French, and Welsh. The chapters examine Latin with regard to the many multilingual contexts in which it was used, looking beyond narrow comparisons with its Roman ancestor to see what medieval users did with Latin and the diverse effects this had on the language. The fifteen chapters are divided into three parts. The first part considers important examples of Latin usage in Britain during four successive periods, pre-Conquest, the 12th, long-14th, and 15th and 16th centuries. In the second part, examples of different spheres of use are examined, including the law, the church, music, and science (and its assimilation of Arabic). In the final part the use of Latin is considered alongside the many native languages of medieval Britain, looking at how the languages had different roles and how they influenced each other. In all the many contexts in which Latin was used, its use reveals continuity matched with adaptation to circumstance, not least in the development of new vocabulary for the language. Between these two poles users of Latin steered a course that suited their own needs and those of their intended audience.

The interaction of several varieties of the same national language may, on the one hand, affect the dominance of the state language over ethnolects, which may eventually lead to their disappearance, and on the other hand, due to the evolutionary linguistic and cultural proximity, contribute to their preservation. The purpose of the study is to consider the form of existence of subsystems of the national language, namely languages characterized by limited territory and spheres of use and the official language. The Lechitic language community reflects a special kind of multilingualism - diglossia, this is the hypothesis of the study. The study analyzes the history of scientific research in the field of linguistic and cultural interactions between the Lekhite ethnoses, examines phonetic and grammatical similarities and differences of languages, as well as the centuries-old unity of the sociality of the Lechites. Using the example of the Kashubian regional language, common in the northern part of Poland, used in conjunction with the state Polish language, the intra-linguistic features of the Lechitic languages are determined, and the importance of the extralinguial approach for the of unofficial languages is emphasized. It is concluded that in the case of unbalanced bilingualism, the identified structures of the language pair, as well as the development of regionalism and cultures of ethical groups contribute to the preservation of unofficial languages.

Globalization modernizes developed national languages, but accelerates the decline of «small» languages. The number of the latter is decreasing dangerously, and at an increasingly rapid pace. Оf the current 7,000 languages, the vast majority will not survive to the end of the 21st century. 150–200 languages (2–3% of the total) have a secure future. Among other things, languages fall into decay because they do not fulfil all the functions a standard language should fulfil. They are displaced from significant spheres of communication by more powerful languages. The less a language serves the socially significant spheres, the less often it is used, the faster it depreciates and decays. The traditional parameters of language vitality (number of speakers, the presence of writing and state status, standardization, areas of use, economic power) are now joined by another one — the presence of the language in the computer environment, its digital equipment. According to this criterion, languages are divided into three groups: 1) languages that have made the digital leap; 2) languages that have shown digital potential; 3) languages that have not overcome the digital threshold. Hence, their prospects in the 21st are evident. The greatest hopes for the preservation of the linguistic diversity are associated with the progress of machine translation technology. In the future, it will assume the function of an international language: enabling written and oral interaction of everyone with everyone without the need to know each other’s language. Improved machine translation is not only a convenience for speakers, but also a way to support multilingualism, a chance to preserve the numerous national languages. It can be expected that thanks to machine translation, the competition of languages for spheres of use will sharply weaken, instead their co-evolution will begin, that is, parallel, conflict-free development.

In Estonian culture, the past has value, and efforts are continuously being made to commit to memory that which is considered worth remembering. While there exist a number of histories (national history, literary history, art history, etc.), so far no comprehensive and systematic translation history has been written on Estonian culture. At the same time it cannot be said that there is lack of intere st in translation histor y: on the contrar y, many studies have been and are being made in relation to this topic. To use the terminology employed by Aleida Assmann to explain the areas and operation of cultural memory, the recent developments in the attitudes towards translation history in Estonia seem to show that translation history is something that should be remembered and brought out of the archives, transferred from states of passive remembrance and passive forgetting to the sphere of active remembrance.In comparison with many other areas, the idea that a history of translation is something desirable and necessary for a culture is a relatively recent phenomenon; in any case, younger than the idea of the indispensability of literary history, for example. One of the reasons for this may lie in the way translation has been perceived in Western culture and what its relation to ‘original’ literature has been. Susan Bassnett has estimated that the boundary between originals and translations began to be drawn in the seventeenth century, when the idea of an ‘original’ began to acquire currency, and that by the nineteenth century, the status of a translation was generally considered to be lower than that of an ‘original’. This kind of distinction between originals and translations has been noticeable in Estonian culture also, especially since the formation of the influential group “Young Estonia” at the beginning of the 20th century. Additionally, in Estonia as well as in many other countries, literature has been instrumental in shaping the identity of the nation and the concept of national culture. This has lead to a situation in which most translation histories composed to date have focused on the history of literary translation from the viewpoint, to a large extent, of national literary and cultural history.On the other hand, for some time already there have been calls to reconsider the national model of literary history, which has been premised on ethnic and often linguistic singularity. While Estonian traditional histories, such as linguistic, national, etc. have indeed often emphasised the quality of national selfhood, the history of cultural life in the territory of present day Estonia may also well be regarded from the perspective of linguistic and cultural heterogeneity. Several disciplines (for example linguistics, literary studies, and history) have already been paying at tention to this aspect for some time now, focusing on the multilinguistic and -cultural facets of the history of the Estonian territory and are thus approaching a pos sible intere st sphere of translation histor y. From the per spective of cultural memor y,another field that is important but that has, for the most part, escaped the attention of traditional histories of literature and translation is the intersemiotic transfers and transmedial relations between various media, between literature and other arts. Translation history could be a potentially comprehensive framework for the conceptualisation of various types of cultural contacts and transfers in the multilingual and multicultural history of Estonia. This means that translation history need not be modelled after traditional national or literary histories but that translation history itself could be regarded as a more general model that allows the integration of the national and the transnational, the belles lettres and the wider sphere of literature, elements of verbal and non-verbal culture, the principle of ethnic and discursive singularity and that of heterogeneity. It may be that what we end up with is not so much a history of translation as a history of culture, with translation as a connecting thread that runs through various topics and historical periods.