Идеальный город и его социальные смыслы: Ф. Л. Райт – П. Солери – С. В. Непомнящий

The expansion, densification and proliferation of urban areas around the world is currently occurring at a rate that is unprecedented in human history. It is predicted that global urban land cover will triple between 2000 and 2030, with some regions (including biodiversity hotspots) experiencing a ninefold increase in urban land cover over the same time period (Seto, G€ uneralp & Hutyra 2012). Accompanying the expansion of urban landscapes, it is anticipated that the human population living in cities and towns globally will increase from 3 5 to 5 billion people within the next 20 years (Fragkias et al. 2013). Thus, the demands of an expanding and urbanizing human population are one of the pressing ecological problems our world is facing (Sanderson et al. 2002), alongside, and in combination with, global climate change and changes to biodiversity at local and global scales (Pimm et al. 2014). Yet, urban environments also present a unique opportunity to expand our fundamental knowledge related to ecology and evolution due to the presence of intense and often novel selection pressures. In the inaugural issue of this journal, Calow (1987) defined functional ecology as the sum of three interactive processes: (i) those occurring between organisms and their environment, (ii) biotic interactions between organisms and (iii) adaptive processes driven by natural selection. The same three processes were highlighted 1 year earlier by Jared Diamond in Nature, when he called for biologists to pay more attention to the potential of using the unprecedented environmental conditions that exist within towns and cities to develop and test evolutionary and ecological theory (Diamond 1986). There is thus a natural synergy between functional ecology and urban ecology, as exemplified by some of the classic papers that have appeared in this journal, such as Rydell (1992) who demonstrated that the form of echolocation system determined the impact of light pollution on bat foraging behaviour. The potential of combining functional ecological research with urban ecology is, however, a long way from being fully realized. This is in part explained by the youth of urban ecology as a discipline. Scientific enquiry into the ecological consequences of urban environments has been underway for over half a century, although most of the momentum emerged after the mid 1990s (McDonnell 2011; Wu 2014). Thus, the focus of much urban research to date has involved describing patterns along environmental gradients (Gagn e 2013; McDonnell & Hahs 2013) rather than investigating the mechanistic processes that lie at the heart of functional ecology. To be effective in addressing the global challenges of urbanization, a much better understanding of how the urban environment affects the ecology and evolution of organisms needs to be developed (Grimm et al. 2008; Marzluff 2012; Gil & Brumm 2014; McDonnell & Hahs 2015). The purpose of this special feature is to draw attention to the plethora of opportunities that await researchers investigating the ecology and evolution of organisms in urban environments. The combination of environmental stressors and conditions within urban areas provides a novel opportunity to test and expand our theories related to ecology and evolution of organisms, and some intriguing insights are already beginning to emerge. For example, the detailed understanding of the molecular, genetic and developmental mechanisms of beak evolution that has arisen from studying Galapagos finches has been significantly advanced by studying beak evolution in the house finch Carpodacus mexicanus in response to novel urban food sources and its consequences for acoustic communication (Badyaev 2010, 2014). Thus, urban ecology has the potential to extend our understanding of extremely well-studied ecological and evolutionary problems.

이태리 출생의 미국 건축가 파올로 솔레리(Paolo Soleri, 1919-2013)는 아르콜로지(arcology)의 개념을 통한 급진적인 생태도시안을 발표하여 큰 주목을 받았다. 건축(architecture)과 생태(ecology)를 결합한 신조어 아르콜로지는 휴머니즘을 토대로 한 문화적 연속성과 과학기술을 기반으로 한 지속가능성이 반영되었지만, 초거대 스케일(mega-scale)과 유토피아적인 성격덕분에 도발적이고 비현실적이라는 비판도 받았다. 솔레리의 아르콜로지는 그가 출판한 여러 권의 책을 통해 소개된 바 있지만, 아쉽게도 구체적인 내용은 명확히 정리되지 않고 산만하게 남아있다. 본 논문은 솔레리가 제안한 아르콜로지의 개념과 구성요소를 친환경 건축도시이론으로 규정하고, 그 실체적인 현상으로 아르코산티(Arcosanti)가 어떻게 구현되었는지 실증적으로 파악하고자 했다. Arcology (architecture plus ecology) is a new term that was coined by the visionary architect, Paolo Soleri (1919-2013), and aims to provide a useful solution for a sustainable dense urban environment. Inspired by the environmental and humanistic crisis in the 1970s, he continuously promoted ideal future city forms with arcology in mind. Arcosanti is one of the many arcologies he proposed and is the only one that was constructed. This paper constructs arcology as a sustainable architectural theory with Arcosanti as a verifiable case study. Despite the fact that arcosanti is only partially built, and far from completion, it still possesses some of the values that Soleri's vision may offer to future generations.

Accessible urban nature is a key component of creating sustainable urban communities and promoting human health and well-being. To balance the economic, social, and environmental dimensions of sustainable development, the United Nations adopted several sustainable developmental goals (SDGs), such as SDG 11 for sustainable cities and communities, which aims to improve urban planning and management, including equitable access to urban nature. However, more information is still needed regarding how planners and managers can promote urban nature visitation and equitable access during health and environmental crises, such as the COVID-19 pandemic. The purpose of this study was to examine trends in urban nature visitation during the pandemic and then to determine if the effect of the pandemic on the frequency of urban nature site visitation varied by distance to home, using an innovative approach of analyzing both publicly available large-scale mobility data and a web-based survey of urban residents of Tel Aviv-Yafo, Israel. The mobility data results showed that there was a negative mean % difference in park visits compared to baseline during the first and third lockdowns, but an increase compared to baseline between lockdowns and even during the second lockdown. This suggests that urban residents had greater need to reconnect with urban nature during and after periods of intense stress. In addition, the survey results showed an increasing negative effect of distance on urban nature site visitation during the pandemic, specifically for urban nature sites located more than 1 km from home. Altogether, the mobility data and survey results suggest that people who lived within 1 km of their preferred urban nature site had disproportionate access to the benefits of urban nature during and after lockdowns than others. To effectively make social and ecological transitions toward urban sustainability, it is vital that cities promote urban nature accessibility during current and future environmental and health crises. Cities should collaborate with diverse stakeholders to create/maintain accessible urban nature sites nearby all sociodemographic groups, provide sustainability education and training to convey the benefits of urban nature, and pursue participatory solutions for understanding urban nature needs and preferences. In this manner, it will be possible to address the growing influence of proximity/travel distance and additional factors that affect urban nature visitation and ultimately, human health and urban sustainability.

Several global challenges have emerged and coalesced in recent times, including climate change and environmental crises; growing health and social inequalities; geopolitical conflicts; and increasing rates of both communicable and noncommunicable and mental health diseases. The urgency and need for change has never been greater. In response, governments are paying increasing attention to the notion of wellbeing as an integrating concept to drive action to address these challenges. They are beginning to take action by introducing wellbeing indexes; wellbeing budgets; joined-up 'triple bottom line' approaches to policy making, and the inclusion of civil society in the decision-making processes. To date, these steps have been sporadic and localised; yet if these multiple social, environmental and economic crises are to be averted, coherent and systematic actions at the global, national and local levels are needed. The World Health Organization (WHO) and its 194 Member States have come together to map a path forward through the Geneva Charter for Well-being and the Well-being Framework. These aim to set the foundation and direction for action. They map the pathway towards a 'wellbeing society', a concept WHO brought to attention in the Geneva Charter. The intention is to support and galvanise nations to build on their nascent efforts to adopt a welbeing agenda, and move beyond rhetoric to take concerted action. To achieve the promise of 'wellbeing societies' will require developing new governance models,bringing all sectors together to define the problems and solutions, adopting new economic levers, and reorienting financing systems to focus on what is truly important. In this paper we describe the background and context for these initiatives, the concept of wellbeing societies and how WHO is advancing this global agenda.

IntroductionPerthes’ disease is a puzzling childhood hip disorder for which the aetiology is unknown. It is known to be associated with socioeconomic deprivation. Urban environments have also been implicated as...

This paper examines the validity of the propositions that the growth of political democracy has reduced social inequality, and that political democracy mediates much of the effect of the level of economic development on social equality. Social equality is defined empirically in terms of three variables: a measure of experience with social insurance programs; a measure of income inequality; and a social welfare index. The analysis of a cross-section of sixty western and third-world countries (1960) indicates that the effect of the level of economic development on each dependent variable is positive and curvilinear, but that the bivariate effects of political democracy on the latter are quite spurious, once the level of economic development is taken into account. Political democracy exerts no significant effects (additive or non-additive) on social equality. A recurring theme in comparative social analyses has been that the growth of political democracy, with its emphasis on political equality, has resulted in more widespread social and material equality. The argument is often elaborated to incorporate the notion that economic development has resulted in higher levels of democratic performance, and that these two factors, in turn, have led to more egalitarian social systems. This paper seeks to assess the validity of this general viewpoint for a cross-section of sixty Western and Third-World countries.

A total of 442 Listeria isolates, including 234 Listeria seeligeri, 80 L. monocytogenes, 74 L. welshimeri, 50 L. innocua, and 4 L. marthii isolates, were obtained from 1,805 soil, water, and other environmental samples collected over 2 years from four urban areas and four areas representing natural environments. Listeria spp. showed similar prevalences in samples from natural (23.4%) and urban (22.3%) environments. While L. seeligeri and L. welshimeri were significantly associated with natural environments (P ≤ 0.0001), L. innocua and L. monocytogenes were significantly associated with urban environments (P ≤ 0.0001). Sequencing of sigB for all isolates revealed 67 allelic types with a higher level of allelic diversity among isolates from urban environments. Some Listeria spp. and sigB allelic types showed significant associations with specific urban and natural areas. Nearest-neighbor analyses also showed that certain Listeria spp. and sigB allelic types were spatially clustered within both natural and urban environments, and there was evidence that these species and allelic types persisted over time in specific areas. Our data show that members of the genus Listeria not only are common in urban and natural environments but also show species- and subtype-specific associations with different environments and areas. This indicates that Listeria species and subtypes within these species may show distinct ecological preferences, which suggests (i) that molecular source-tracking approaches can be developed for Listeria and (ii) that detection of some Listeria species may not be a good indicator for L. monocytogenes.

Green Economy and Infrastructure Contributions of USDA Urban and Nonfarm Soil Projects in the U.S.

Space is a highly valued asset in cities. This is a key reason why nature-based solutions (NBS) for water management are often perceived to be more expensive than traditional greysolutions. Promoting NBS implementation requires methods for quantifying their non-market benefits that are widely accepted and easy-to-apply in early planning and brainstorming stages.In this work, we develop a predictive metamodel for the total economic value of urban and peri-urban nature, based on 114 stated-preference valuation studies of nature in (peri-)urban areas and openly available geographic data from across the world. The dataset covers the entire range of NBS types with sizes from 0.5 to 900.000 ha. We employ a mixed-effects modelling approach and use a cross-validation procedure to determine which factors affect the willingness to pay for (peri-)urban nature. We consider the predictive performance of 8.4 million model permutations that consider different combinations of site properties and topographic and socio-economic characteristics of the surroundings as input.We find that the total economic value is determined by the size of the nature areas and population densities in their surroundings. There is clear evidence for substitution effects where available nature areas reduce the willingness to pay for new nature. Beyond the dependency on area, there is little evidence for making distinctions between nature types. Economic values do depend on the average income at a site, but these variations are entirely captured by purchase power corrections. Our value estimates are aligned with related literature and range between 150 and 400,000 USD/ha/year. We have implemented our metamodel into a freely available Python program, which generates maps of the predicted values for any location in Europe in a spatial resolution of 100m.

Solitary and primitively eusocial bees are essential pollinators of plants. However, recent observations indicate a decline in their populations in both urban and natural environments. Urban areas are increasingly recognized as potential habitats for bee conservation. Nonetheless, these urban habitats can influence the taxonomic and functional diversity of bee populations. Therefore, we hypothesize that the distinctive warmer climate of urban areas – resulting from the urban heat island effect – along with the potential scarcity of floral resources, contributes to shifts in emergence patterns and the sex ratio of solitary and primitively eusocial bees. We found that many solitary bee species produced females before males. Additionally, most species within the Apidae family were recorded as protandrous, with the exceptions of Nomada marshamella and Nomada fabriciana. All species of Megachilidae were found to be protandrous. We also observed significant variation in the emergence patterns of soil-nesting species. Notably, we did not find any relationship between sociality and nesting preferences in relation to sex-biased emergence. The overall sex ratio varied among different bee species and families. In Halictidae family, sex ratios were biased towards females, while the Apidae and Megachilidae families exhibited a skewed ratio towards males. The sex ratio in the Colletidae family did not show any significant difference. However, among the Andrenidae and Halictidae families, we identified five species with significantly different sex ratios between urban and nature areas, with a higher proportion of males observed in urban sites. This suggests that these species may have been affected by limited food resources, potentially due to urban management practices such as the removal of floral resources. This could lead to increased competition for resources among the species.

Solitary and primitively eusocial bees, an important group of pollinators, have declined in the past few decades. In view of the recent focus on safeguarding pollinating insects, it is vital to understand the basic ecology of species for their conservation, for example their phenologies. We observed the flight periods of solitary and primitively eusocial bees in both the urban core of a large British town and nearby nature conservation areas. The bee surveys were conducted with standardised methods, on warm sunny days from the first appearance of bees in March 2012 and continued until October 2012. This study confirmed that a high number of species are active in the spring season. The emergence dates of species in urban areas and nature sites varied; about 26 of the 35 species were recorded at least one week earlier in urban areas; in contrast, only four species were seen earlier in nature conservation sites. When comparing this with the expected flight periods recorded (largely in nature sites) in the literature, many species were recorded at their expected time. However, a few individuals were recorded after their usual flight activity time, suggesting that the populations were possibly affected by the microclimate in urban areas. More urban phenological data are needed to understand the phenological trends in bees in urban habitats.

Precipitation is the primary source of freshwater. The availability of water in an area is largely dependent on precipitation that is further distributed into various components such as aquifer recharge, evapotranspiration and surface runoff etc. Aquifer recharge is one of the significant sources of groundwater that is affected because of increasing the urban sealed areas. Urbanization brings numerous artificial changes by altering natural earth surfaces into impervious areas that result in reducing infiltration. The changes in the urban land covers modify the natural drainage system and affect the groundwater recharge systems. As precipitation is the major source of groundwater, it is important to evaluate its influence on the aquifer recharge. Thus, this study is conducted to explore the interaction between precipitation and groundwater level. A comparative analysis is performed between urban and suburban environments. The results show that both urban and suburban areas experience groundwater depletion but the rate of depletion is high in urban areas compared to its suburban. The results also demonstrate that during monsoon, the groundwater level changes in the urban periphery but the water level remains static in the urban areas. The urban areas include more sealed areas that prohibit direct recharge, therefore, in urban areas, no significant relationship is observed between precipitation and groundwater level. In contrary, the influence of precipitation on groundwater level is observed in the suburban area therefore, relatively a high correlation is observed.

The development of Space Architecture demonstrates how human settlement on planets beyond Earth is no longer science fiction, but a challenge to develop a specific architectural way of thinking, both technologically and conceptually. Ongoing research and design provide architects with new opportunities to experiment with orbital and planetary habitat spatial solutions, extending some architectural concepts to extreme environments such as the Moon and Mars. This paper describes a study conducted as part of a thesis with the purpose of tracing a path of research and design reflection through eighteen case studies selected from some of the extra-terrestrial habitat solutions proposed so far and attempts to develop the first Atlas of habitats beyond Earth. It is structured for constructive, morphological, and settlement types through examination, redesign, and comparison, with the aim of consolidating and defining characteristics necessary to structure a thinking process. The study also develops a design hypothesis for a settlement on Mars that tries to respond to the challenges in outer space environments while also reflecting on ‘living in Space’, a synthesis of consciousness and technology, while making use of Artificial Intelligence throughout the whole settlement process, from surveying and construction to living and maintenance. The lack of oxygen, the atmosphere, thermal excursion, cosmic radiations, micrometeorites, and the reduced sound propagation, are some of the factors that influence formal decisions made in a city concept that is no longer only thought of as a survival strategy in extreme environments. Rather, they serve as a constitution based on the ideas expressed by Paolo Soleri in the city of Arcosanti, Arizona, that propose critical models in the face of rampant consumerism, alternative expressions of a futuristic and sustainable architecture that dialogues with the environment without abandoning the founding architectural principles.

Although cigarette butts (CBs) are known as a hazardous waste and an important litter in public environments, the density of littered cigarette butts in rural areas and the concentration of pollutants leaking from them remain a knowledge gap. This study aimed to investigate the difference in cigarette butt density in urban and rural areas of Iran and the environmental consequences caused by the leakage of various pollutants from them, by comparing the Cigarette Butt Pollution Index (CBPI). Visual surveys were conducted in seven locations in urban environments and sixteen locations in eight villages. The range of cigarette butt density in urban environments was 0.25/m2 to 0.81/m2 (0.46/m2 on average), while in rural environments, it was 0.8/m2 to 2.33/m2 (1.54/m2 on average). Additionally, the CBPI in rural areas was three times higher than in urban areas, resulting in an average CBPI of 31.24 in rural areas and 10.7 in urban areas. In addition, the higher durability of cigarette butts in rural environments resulted in the leakage of 1.09-2.38 µg/m2 of heavy metals, while the leakage of metals from littered cigarette butts in urban environments was estimated to be 0.065-0.406 µg/m2. Developing public services such as cleaning systems in rural environments is essential to reduce pollution caused by cigarette butts.

Urbanization is a disturbance process that can select species and result in biodiversity homogenization. Despite this, urban green areas shelter nature and are also important to human welfare. Epiphytes are an important functional group present in such areas, that are rarely studied. We evaluated the vascular epiphytic component in 26 urban green areas in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest and tested hypotheses related to the anthropogenic disturbances: 1) the community of epiphytes in urban green areas presents low richness and diversity of species; 2) there is low beta diversity due to flora homogenization represented by a reduced set of more tolerant species to disturbance. A total of 2288 trees (1563 representing phorophytes) and 110 epiphytic species were sampled. Six species were dominant, resulting in low diversity values, but some green areas had relatively high richness. The similarity found between the majority of the sampled areas suggests that epiphytic flora is subject to homogenization due to environmental filters. We found a high richness of species without adaptations to the epiphytic lifeform (accidental epiphytes) (42% of total sampled). Some results suggest that more comprehensive ecological and/or floristic studies about the epiphytes in the urban environment are necessary, such as Orchidaceae as the second richest family (since it is often poor in urban areas). More information about the species distribution patterns are necessary, both regarding the anthropized environments and the relationships with exotic or native phorophytes, as well as to enhance the knowledge of the ecological functions played by the epiphytes in these places.