Украшения и аксессуары костюма латенского облика из скифских погребений на левобережье Нижнего Днестра (находки 2017 г.)

Introduction. The article publishes and analyses the materials obtained during excavations of Scythian barrow 9 of the group Vodovod near the Glinoe village, Slobodzeysk district, on the left bank of the Lower Dniester. The barrow was surrounded by a ring ditch and contained two burials of medieval nomads - the main one, the Scythian, and the secondary, the inlet one. Methods. The mound was excavated by the method of parallel trenches, leaving stratigraphic profiles. When analyzing the materials obtained, a comparatively typological method was applied. Analysis. The main burial was made in a catacomb of unusual construction. The entrance well of the catacomb was filled with stone slabs and boulders characterized with utmost accuracy of production. Despite this, in antiquity the burial was robbed three times: through the entrance well, through the roof of the funeral chamber and through the robbery mine, which went to the burial chamber from the north-eastern floor of the mound. The preserved grave goods are represented with a handmade pot, an iron knife, an iron needle and an awl, a lead finial, a stone slab, a burned pebble, a piece of mineral paint, a wooden kneader, a bronze horse harness and golden pendants. The stone slab was made very carefully, and the wooden kneader is the second such find in the North-West Black Sea region. Bronze items of horse harness have no analogues in the Scythian burial complexes of the North Black Sea region. The construction of barrow 9 of the group Vodovod dates back to the second half of the 5th century BC and is determined on the basis of gold pendants, which analogies are known only in the Malyy Chertomlyk barrow in the Lower Dnieper region. Results.The most important is the fact that the studied barrow was found in the microzone (near the Glinoe village of the Slobodzeya district), where at the moment not only the Scythian burial sites of the 5th - 2nd centuries BC are known, but also a settlement of that time. This testifies to the continual dwelling of the Scythians on the left bank of the Lower Dniester River during this period.

For many years causes of the fall of Scythia have been a subject to a great deal of scientific scrutiny. The topic is still debatable. The author has recently published several papers, which justify Sarmatians’ involvement in the fall of Scythia in the late 4th and early 3rd centuries BC based on the written and archaeological evidence. Previously, the concept has also been supported by other researchers. These days, however, there are studies in favor of alternative versions claiming Sarmatians’ innocence in the events leading to the fall of Scythia. The main ideas of the studies boil down to the statement of no evidence of Sarmatians from the 3rd century BC being found not only in the North Pontic region but also to the east from the Don river. In the light of the statement, they implement the idea that Sarmatians’ appearance in the Eastern European steppes dates back to the time not earlier than the 2nd century BC. In the article, the author, given the anthropological and archaeological datasets, confirms the Sarmatians’ continuous presence in the Volga-Urals region without any chronological gaps between the 4th and the 1st century BC. The idea of the stage-by-stage settlement of the eastern nomads in the Volga-Don region and the North Pontic region is suggested. In the first stage, since the middle of the 4th century BC, the political situation underwent some destabilization processes due to the appearance of Sarmatians in the Lower Don region. The second stage is characterized by Sarmatians attacking Scythia in the first half of the 3rd century BC. For most of the 3rd century BC, Sarmatians’ main habitat was located to the east of the Don river. From there they conducted raids on the territory of the Northern part of the Black Sea region to plunder or collect the tribute. This concept is also supported by linguists’ new interpretations of written sources.

The paper deals with 221 burnt stones from the Scythian graves found on the left bank of the Lower Dniester dated to the 5th—2nd centuries BC. All of them, if it was fixed, come from wooden or handmade ritual vessels. Stones of approximately the same size and without traces of processing were used as heating elements. In all cases, traces of burning were recorded — soot spots and characteristic fracturing. Petrological thin sections showed the mineral composition of the rocks and their structural and textural features. These are, as a rule, sandstones and, much less often, other rocks (carbonate, igneous and metamorphic). The vast majority of stones are of local origin, and only a few are imported. At present, it is obvious that the tradition of fumigating graves among the Scythians of the North-West Black Sea region appeared no later than the 5th century BC. Initially, wooden vessels served as containers for red-hot pebbles and organic balms. Starting from the 3rd century BC as vessels for the same pebbles, handmade incense cups began to be used, widely known not only in the cemeteries of the 3rd—2nd centuries BC near the Glinoe Village and in other sites of the Dniester region, but also in a number of other Scythian sites, situated westwards (Dobruja, Lower Danube region) and eastwards (Bug, Dnieper, Crimea, Azov and Don regions). Keywords: Scythians, graves, 5th—2nd centuries BC, left bank of the Lower Dniester, wooden and handmade ritual vessels, petrography, rocks

The article deals with the Ayurvedic treatises about the importance of regular physical exercises for keeping good health. It offers translation from Sanskrit into Russian of some excerpts from the medical works of the classical period. Among them are the «Astanga-hrdayam» (about the 7th century AD), «Caraka-samhita» (2nd century BC - about the 1-2nd century AD), «Susruta-samhita» (3rd century BC -about 5th century AD) accompanied by the translations from the relevant traditional Sanskrit commentaries, such as «Sarvanga-sundara» by Arunadatta, «Ayurveda-rasayana» by Hemadri, «Sasilekha» by Indu, «Ayurveda-dipika» by Cakrapani, «Jalpa-kalpataru» by Gangadhara, «Nibandha-sangraha» by Dalhana.

Historically, Chinas Xinjiang Region has been important in Chinese-Western cultural exchange. This investigation into the diet of human populations in the Xinjiang region provides substantial information on the interactions between China and the West. We report here on stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis of human bone collagen from the 12th century BC to the 2nd century AD at the Yanghai Tombs, Xinjiang. The results of this study indicate the consumption of significant amounts of C3-based animal protein throughout these periods. We argue that animal husbandry dominated the lifestyle of ancient Yanghai populations, while agricultural cultivation was less important. The diet of ancient Yanghai human populations clearly changed with time and is closely related to the fluctuation of human populations. More specifically, there were significant differences in food resources available to the Yanghai ancestors in the middle to late Bronze Age (12th Century BC - 8th Century BC), which may reflect the diversity of these populations. Subsequently, during the early Iron Age (7th Century BC - 3rd Century BC), after an extended period of adjustment and development, the diet of all individuals became more similar. However, during the Han Dynasty (2nd Century BC - 2nd Century AD), the human diet consisted of a larger proportion of animal protein than in earlier periods. This suggests that stockbreeding played a more important role in Yanghai during this time. Based on careful consideration of historical records and archaeological features we suggest that this was due to the arrival of the Huns.

The article analyses remains of the Baitovo Culture fortifications in the focus of archaeological research. These remains are dated back to the early Iron Agee and situated in the Transural forest-steppes. Previously determined stages of the culture development (early to late 7th – 6th century BC and late 5th – 3rd century BC) are relied on to analyse and restore the walls that used to fringe the settlements. The study reviews the shapes, depth and water levels in the moats at Maray5, Likhachevskoe and Borovushka2 hillforts. The research suggests that the settlements used to be fortified with a stakewall at the bottom of the moat. Likhachevskoe hillfort had its gate towers restored. The researched Baitovskoe, Staro-LybaevoII and Bochanetskoe hillforts allow to conclude that even later on the early Iron Age settlements preserved the tradition of erecting compact stakewalls or wattles at the bottom of moats. However, this as when the Baitovo culture people started to erect fortifications with deeper moats and higher walls (Bolshoy Imbiryay3, Maray1 hillforts). This is evident of increasingly more substantial defence of the settlements. The studied Sargat and Gorokhovo culture fortifications peaked in 3rd – 2nd century BC. The comparison reveals that on one hand people kept opting for simple stakewall structures or wattlers to fortify their settlements, but they tended to change the properties and made their moats and walls more substantial. On the other, they reinforced fortifications through gate towers, wooden supports for moat walls, log frameworks and cages on the walls. Such structures are typical for fortresses that bore the function of social and economic centers. It is concluded that the defense works the Baitovo people erected illustrate the early defensive architecture of the early Iron Age Transurals.

P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus (236/5-183 BC) is best known for his extensive role in Roman expansion throughout the Mediterranean in the late 3rd and early 2nd Centuries BC. His contribution to the Second Punic War, most famously his defeat of Hannibal at the Battle of Zama in 202, and to the Roman-Seleucid War with Antiochus III has naturally resulted in ancient and modern fascination with his military campaigns, strategies, and achievements. Similarly, the development of the ‘Scipionic Legend’ and his reception within Greek and Latin literary traditions has received comprehensive analysis. Yet questions remain to be asked about Scipio’s image and identity, and how they were promoted and received by both Scipio and contemporary audiences in Rome and the Hellenistic world. Existing treatments of his career, such as those of Liddell-Hart (1927), Haywood (1933), Scullard (1970), and Gabriel (2008), have approached him almost exclusively as a military and political figure. In this thesis, however, Scipio will be examined as a figure shaped by Rome’s and his own immersion in the culture of the Hellenistic world during the 3rd and 2nd Centuries BC. It will be argued that the honours and presentation techniques associated with Scipio are by and large products of his own age and that there has been too much emphasis on parallels with figures such as Julius Caesar and on the consequent theory that Scipio’s honours are the product of hindsight. At each stage of Scipio’s public career, he used a combination of Roman and Hellenistic promotional techniques to great effect, engaging with leadership ideals and methods from both cultures to appeal to varying audiences. From his early roles in Rome and Spain, he presented himself in terms of Roman virtues, embodying filial pietas in battle and display, while exploring Hellenistic conceptions of the gods through his personal relationships with Jupiter and Neptune. In Sicily and Africa at the end of the Second Punic War, he further engaged with Greek culture in his manner and dress and established a diplomatic relationship with the Numidian prince, Masinissa, and later with Philip V and Antiochus, that transcended Roman convention. On his travels through Greece and Asia Minor during the war with Antiochus in 190-189, he presented himself as a magnanimous benefactor to local communities and leaders, who responded with honours suitable for a Hellenistic king. His immersion in foreign contexts certainly enhanced opportunities for exploration of Hellenistic technique, but it was equally present in his presentation at Rome. His triumphal procession, his erection of the ‘Arch of Scipio’, and his cultivation of a popular image seem to have drawn on precedents within both Rome and the Hellenistic world. Rome, as part of a broader Mediterranean cultural koine, engaged with and was receptive to Hellenistic culture to a much greater extent than is often acknowledged, and his contemporaries responded to his Hellenistic display with honours and veneration appropriate for a Hellenistic leader, benefactor, or saviour figure. Ultimately, this exploration of Scipio Africanus through a Hellenistic and cultural lens sheds light on the development of Roman elite identity and its engagement with Hellenistic culture during the 3rd and 2nd Centuries BC.

Age-linked symbolism was often an important part of the burial ritual. The study aims to reconstruct age-linked social groups in the nomadic societies in the Southern Urals during the Early Iron Age (late 5th – 3rd centuries BC). The source base consisted of 23 published and partially published burial grounds and separate barrows of the Early Sarmatian period. The sample consisted of 183 individuals (141 females, 142 males) with gender and age (in years) identification. For analysis, only those burials were used where the individual belonging of the inventory did not cause doubts. Analysis of the sample showed that the age of the adult deceased (young, mature, elderly) was not determinant for the choice of weapons as accompaniments. There is a tendency for the amount of decoration to decrease with age аmong female burials. We can conclude that the peak of social activity lasted longer for men than for women. The correlation of age groups with other types of artifacts (cult objects, household items, horse harness or certain types of weapons/decorations), as well as with markers of high social status (prestigious things, labor-intensive structures) may be one of the further directions of research.

Paleoecology of the ancient city of Tanais (3RD century BC–5TH century AD) on the north-eastern coast of the sea of Azov (Russia)

Introduction. The problem of selecting monuments of the 3rd century BC in the Early Sarmatian culture came into sight during the process of discussing the reasons for the fall of Scythia, when it became clear that the Early Sarmatian funerary monuments in the Northern Black Sea steppes are recorded starting from the 2nd century BC, a hundred years after the alleged destruction. Methods and materials. During the research process the scientists came to the conclusion that there are no imports of the 3rd century BC in the burials of the Lower Volga region and the Southern Urals. Some researchers stated the absence of monuments of this time in the indicated territories, while others continued to search for new approaches. As a result, they proposed the the method of “clamped” dating, which allows us to distinguish a stratum between well-dated complexes of the 4th and 2nd – 1st centuries BC. Analysis. In the course of clarifying the situation in the original Sarmatian territories, some researchers have decided to devide the reference early Sarmatian burial ground Prokhorovka into two groups, not only chronologically, but also culturally. The 3rd century BC became a time separating these groups, elusive according to these authors, not only in the Northern Black Sea region, but also in the Volga-Ural steppes. Opposing this point of view, supporters of the culture of continuous development in the 4th – 1st centuries BC pay attention to the unity of the funeral rite throughout the entire period, and the lack of well-dated imports is explained by crisis phenomena and migration processes, when old contacts with civilizations are crashing and new ones have not yet been established. The discussion that unfolded in the 90s of the 20th century with the accumulation of new materials and clarification of old dates periodically revived, updated with new participants, but the position of opponents has not really changed. The proposed article is devoted to evaluating the arguments of both sides. Results. The method of “clamped” dating is not the most universal, considering the constantly growing database of sources and its corrections. But this method works and many scientists continue to rely on it. A simple statement of the impossibility of identifying monuments of the 3rd century BC, when the existence of the monuments of this time is asserted, seems even more surprising than the assertion of the “hiatus” of the 3rd century BC, in the Volga-Ural steppes region.

Introduction. The article is devoted to the analysis of objects discovered during the excavation of the “Kamennaya mogila” (Stone Grave) kurgan on Medovaya mountain (southern outskirts of Zheleznovodsk). Methods and materials. The comparative typological method was used as a worker. It is based on classification by material, processing method, shape, ornamentation, as well as on the study of types of gold jewelry, glass and black-glazed dishes, bronze horse plate foreheads and cheek pads, etc. Analysis. The typological and chronological analysis was carried out on gold jewelry (plaques, rings, pendants), antique ceramic and glassware, items of horse dress and weapons. Analogies to imported items from the crypt, found in the monuments of ancient culture and in the burials of the barbarian nobility, allow them to be dated to the 4th – 2nd centuries BC. Items of equestrian dress and weapons date back to the 3rd – 2nd centuries BC. Results. The author, regarding the social structure of the local population, ranked the monument as stratum No. 2 (nobility of the first level). A complex burial structure of the tomb with a significant number of ritual offerings is recorded. Burial items have numerous analogies in the status burials of the Bosporan, Meotian and Scythian nobility of the Northern Black Sea region and the North Caucasus of the 4 th – 2nd centuries BC. The sophisticated frame structure of the horse harness made of iron parts from the crypt of the Stone Grave is unique. Only a member of the nobility with a very high status could afford such a special bridle as a ritual offering.

Introduction. The article is devoted to the problem of establishing the eastern border of the Saka culture of Alai. An important role in understanding of this problem is played by the Touyun burial ground, located in the southwestern part of Xinjiang, close to Kyrgyzstan. Materials and methods. This burial ground has specific funeral rites, which demonstrate the characteristic features peculiar to the Saka culture of Alai. In particular, these are burials in stone boxes, crypt-like stone structures and at the level of the ancient surface, constructed under low stone-earth burial mounds. Burials in them were both single and multi-act. The buried people in these burials were in an elongated position with orientation of the sculls to the west and northwest direction. The funeral inventory from Touyun was relatively poor and represented by a couple of ceramic vessels, jewelry items (earring, bracelet, and beads), a belt garment (belt buckle), household items (sumac, awls) and clothing items (plaques). Results and discussion. These funeral objects, based on analogies, allowed us to establish the time of existence of the Touyun burial ground, which fits into the chronological framework of the end of the 5th - 3rd centuries BC. It is evident, that this necropolis appears as a result of the migration of the Saka population from the eastern part of the Alai Valley. The occupying this territory group of Alai Saka was appeared in the contact zone with the population of the Saka culture of Tien Shan region, with which, apparently, they established marital ties. Currently, the Touyun burial ground is the easternmost site of the Saka culture of Alai, which makes it possible to expand the border of this culture by more than 130 km to the east than previously thought. It also made it possible to significantly clarify the real areas of the main archaeological cultures in the southwestern part of Xinjiang such as the Saka cultures of Alai, Pamir and Tien Shan region.

The article presents the latest results of excavations of one of the reference burials of the Kara-Abyz culture, located in the Iglinsky region of the Republic of Bashkortostan. Materials from six burials containing seven skeletons are introduced into scientific circulation. The funeral rite is characterized by the following features: burials were performed according to the rite of inhumation in simple subrectangular grave pits with rounded corners, vertical walls and a flat bottom. The accompanying equipment is represented by a significant number of bronze decorations: zoomorphic belt plates, belt mirror plaques, round plaques, trapezoidal pendants, etc. Weapon items are represented by iron three-bladed arrowheads, horse harness items are presented by iron bits. From the category of household items are presented by iron knives and a spindle whorl. The grave goods allow us to date the identified burials within the 2nd century BC — 2nd century AD.

The Late Scythian sites are located in three regions of Ukraine: the Lower Dniester, the Lower Dnieper, and Crimea. Archaeological research has shown that the Late Scythian archaeological culture has Scythian, La Tиne, Graeco-Roman, and Sarmatian elements. Since the beginning of the 20th century, 17 hillforts and 3 necropolises of the Late Scythian culture have been discovered in the Lower Dnieper region. Previous anthropological research has provided insights into the morphological type of these people. However, there is a paucity of data concerning morbidity, trauma, and biological adaptation. The analysis of odontological materials through paleopathological methods enables the conclusions regarding the dietary habits, level of hygiene, and way of life of ancient populations. The paleopathological analysis comprised 106 individuals from the Chervony Mayak necropolis representing a period between the 2nd century BC and the 3rd century AD. The data indicate that tooth wear was not pathological in this population, with the highest rates observed among mature individuals. However, a differential analysis of the burials revealed that there were differences in this aspect between the various types of burials. In particular, the analysis of individuals buried in crypts revealed that the wear of the anterior teeth was more severe, indicating that these teeth were used for mastication, probably due to the loss of molars and premolars. In the pit and niche graves, the posterior teeth exhibited greater abrasion, which may indicate dietary differences between the two groups. Most cases of enamel chipping were observed on the anterior surface of the teeth, a finding that may also be associated with dietary factors, including the consumption of abrasive or harsher foods. The high incidence of dental calculus indicates a diet high in protein. Furthermore, the statistically significant correlation between caries and age suggests an increased consumption of carbohydrates in older individuals. However, compared to agricultural populations, the prevalence of caries is lower in this group, which may indicate a lower carbohydrate intake associated with a higher proportion of protein foods. The analysis also revealed a correlation between the type of burial structures and dental pathologies, suggesting dietary differences among different social groups. Individuals buried in crypts were likely to have consumed foods with higher calorie content, which may have resulted in higher levels of dental caries and calculus.

The main idea of the article is to study paleoanthropological materials of the nomads dating back to the 4th – 3rd centuries BC from the territory of the Lower Volga region using paleopathological methods. The reason for addressing this topic was an attempt to identify pathological features of the early nomads from the Sarmatian epoch due to the existence of the problem of identifying monuments of 4th – 3rd centuries BC. The standard assessment program of pathological conditions on postcranial skeleton and skull bones developed by A.P. Buzhilova was applied in the course of work with the anthropological material [Buzhilova, 1995; 1998]. The main material for the current study was the bone remains of 16 individuals originating from burials under the barrows of early Sarmatian era within the territory of the Lower Volga region, dated 4th – 3rd centuries BC. As a result of the conducted research it was established that there is a common genetic origin, which unites all nomads of the early Iron Age of the South Russian steppes for the Savromatian-Sarmatian tribes. Furthermore, the settlement of population across the Volgograd Trans-Volga region in the 4th – 3rd centuries BC happened by the arrival of mainly male part of the population who adopted successfully to the negative environmental factors. The diet of the Sarmatians of the early Sarmatian culture development was based on meat and dairy products. A striking feature of the Sarmatians of the 4th – 3rd centuries BC is a lack of signs of inflammatory processes, which indicates an insignificant density of nomadic groups migrating to the Trans-Volga steppes. The high frequency rate of injuries and signs of exposure to low temperatures was detected among early Sarmatians compared to the nomads from a later period may be a result of a complex political situation provoked by a difficult environmental situation due to extremely continental climate and its aridization at that epoch.